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EESEAKCHES 



PREHISTORIC AND PROTOHISTORIC 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, 

MYTHOLOGY, AND ARCHEOLOGY, 



IN CONNECTION WITH THE 



ORIGIN OF CULTURE IN AMERICA 



AC GAD OR SUMERIAN FAMILIES, 



ofcp 



HYDE CLARKE, 



MEM. OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE; COB. MEM. AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY AND 

OF THE BYZANTINE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; FOR. MEM. OF THE 

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE. 



u 






/ 




LONDON : 

Published by N. TRUBNER & CO., 

57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL, E C. 

1875. 

{Copyright Reserved.) 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface ... ... ... ... ... ... i 

Condition of Ancient America ... ... ... ... 3 

American Grammar and Caucasian ... ... ... ... 6 

Eelations of American Languages to Old World .. . ... ... 6 

Part I. Prehistoric Comparative Philology ... ... 8 

Eskimo 6— Short Eaces 7— Pygmean, Wolof— Khond ... ... 8 

Sandeh — Nyam Nyam — Tasmanian ... ... ... ... 8 

Garo — Yuma — Carib — Dahomey ... ... .. ... 9 

Akka ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 

Agaw, Abkhass, Guarani, Achaian ... ... ... ... 10 

Vasco — Kolarian, Basque, Kol, Houssa, Ashantee ... ... 11 

Ugrian. Himalayo — Ugrian, Magyar, Finnic ... ... ... 11 

Protohistoric Languages, Egyptian ... ... ... 14 

Sumero — Peruvian, Chinese, Tibetan, Dravidian .. ... 14 

Historic Languages, Aryan, Semitic... ... ... ... 15 

Distribution of Languages — Table ... ... ... ... 16 

Distribution, High Asia ... ... ... ... ... 15 

Distribution, Caucasia ... ... ... ... ... 17 

Distribution, Nile Eegion .. ... ... ... ... 17 

Distribution, West Africa ... ... ... ... ... 18 

Distribution, India, North East Asia ... ... ... ... 18 

Distribution, America ... ... ... ... ... 19 

Chronology of American Languages ... ... ... ... 20 

Permanency and Durability of Words ... ... ... 20 

Table of Equivalents of Prehistoric Words and Eoots ... ... 21 

Early Words, Father and Mother ... ... ... ... 24 

Formation of Animal Names, Sun and Moon, Fire, Crow, Cock, Gender, 

25. Dog, Birds, Insects, Elephant, 26. Nile Names in Brazil ... 24 

Formation of Weapon Names ... ... ... ... 26 

Table of Distribution in Asia, Africa, and America ... ... 27 

Pronouns ... ... ... ... ... ... 27 

Determinatives, Distinctive Particles... ... ... ... 28 

Differencing of Words ... ... ... ... ... 28 

Negative Series, List of Negative Words, Mythology of 30 — Negatives 

in Aymara and Peguan 31 v .. ... ... ... 28 

Gender, Principles of ... ... ... ... ... 31 

Tribal Names ... ... ... ... ... ... 32 

Names common to Old and New World ... ... ... 32 

Comparative Mythology, Sun and Moon. See also Note p. 73 ... 32 

Phenomena of connection between New and Old World ... ... 33 

Skulls, 33 -Circumcision, Enlargement of ear lobe, 34 — Massive Stone 
Buildings, 34 — Collosal Heads and Monuments, Large Stone Blocks, 
Terraces, 35 — Burial Towers,35 — Bronze,Goldsmith's work, Dentistry, 
Tin, Pottery, Burial Offerings, Woven Fabrics, Quipu, Scape Llama, 

Men Sacrifices, Calendar, 36 — Eed Hand, Chewing, Umbrella ... 36 

Part II. The Connection of Culture in Asia and America ... 36 

Affinities of Grammar ... ... ... ... ... 36 

Aymara, Quichua, Aztek, Maya allied to Indo-Chinese, Accad and 

Sumerian ... ... ... ... ... ... 36 



CONTENTS— (continued) . 

Aymara, Danakil, 38— Extension of Aymara, 39 ... ... ... 37 

Quichua ... ... ... ... ... ... 39 

Aztek ... ... ... ... ... ... 39 

Othoini, 39 — Circassian ... ... ... ... ... 40 

Maya, Haniath, Easter Island ... ... ... ... 40 

Course of Migration, Pacific ... ... ... ... 41 

Pegu, Siam ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 

Cambodia ... ... ... ... ... ... 42 

India, River Names ... ... ... ... ... 42 

Accad, 42, 46 — Sumerian, Ugrian affinities, Hamath, 40, 41, 43, 46- Canaan- 

itic, 42 — Cypriote, Lybian, Hissarlik, Celtiberian ... ... 42 

Accad and Georgian Comparison ... ... ... ... 47 

Accad and Peruvian comparative Table ... ... ... 47 

Georgian, Ka ... ... ... ... ... 46 

Georgian and Accad Table... ... ... ... ... 47 

Ktruscan, Latin Table ... ... ... ... ... 44 

Table I. Etruscan, Georgian, American ... ... ... 45 

Table II. Etruscan Numerals .. ... ... ... 46 

Table III. Languages of Asia Minor ... ... ... 46 

Eteu Peru ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 

Chinese affinities to American — Gallinomero, Khwakhlamayo ... 47 

Topographical Nomenclature, Eesemblance of Names ... ... 48 

Table of River Names of New Granada, India, and Italy ... ... 49 

Table of River Names of Peru, India, and the West ... ... 50 

Lake Names in both Hemispheres ... ... ... ... 50 

Mountain Names, Agaw ... ... ... ... ... 51 

Table of Town Names of Peru, Mexico and South America, the Bible 

and the Old World ... ... ... ... ... 51 

Accad City Names in Bible and Peru ... ... ... ... 57 

Thebes or Taba, Egypt, Greece, Brazil ... ... ... 58 

Question of Migration by the Atlantic, 58, 59 — Professor Campbell's investi- 
gations of Ethnic Names in the Bible — Existence in America ... 58 
Culture in America arrested ... . . ... ... 59 

Early Migration ... ... ... ... ... 60 

Survival of the Traditions of America and Australia in the Old 

World, School of Pergamos, Virgil, 60 — Genesis, 61 ... ... 60 

Conclusion, Development of Languages in Prehistoric Grammar, 
Unity of Language, Culture, Mythology, Value of American 

Materials, Prehistoric and Protohistoric ... ... ... 62 

Appendix Table of Sumerian Words, Comparison of Accad, Georgian, 
Circassian, Cambodian, Peguan, Burmese, Aunamitic, Aymara, 

Quichua, Aztek, Othomi, Tarahamara, Huasteca, Poconchi ... 63 

Table of Pronouns ... ... ... ... ... 67 

Discussion at the Anthropological Institute, Consul Hutchinson, 68 — 
Dr. Leitner, 69— Mr. R. J. Halliburton, 68 and 73— Mr. J. Jeremiah, 
jun., 69— Col. Lane Fox, etc., 70 
Note on Mr. R. G. Halliburton's Pleiad Discovery in Comparative 

Mythology— Miss Buckland's Metallurgy ... ... ... 73 



PREFACE. 



The following work contains a summary of various researches 
in their practical application. The substance of it was read 
in the Session of 1874, before the Anthropological Institute; but 
the paper as here given, and published in the Journal, includes 
the results of subsequent investigations. This process has 
not tended to consolidate, but rather to disturb the growth. 

At the same time it is the development of long preceding 
studies. When in Asia Minor, I soon began to see that the 
Hellenic theories were insufficient to explain the phenomena 
of Greek Asia, or even of Hellas itself, notwithstanding that 
so much of mythology and of geography had been made to 
take an Hellenic shape. Investigations in the track of my 
late friend, Von Halm, as to the Albanian languages, afforded 
no better solution. It was not difficult to recognise, what so 
many subsequent discoveries have compelled most men to 
acknowledge, that monuments and still more enduring myths, 
and to my sight even men, were to be found throughout 
Western Asia, belonging to epochs far anterior to the Hel- 
lenic migrations. 

At length, as an old student of comparative philology, I 
sought by its methods to institute a systematic and laborious 
exploration of the facts and phenomena. My attention was 
directed to the Caucasus, as one neighbouring territory of 

b 



VI 



Lesser Asia,, and particularly to the living Georgian languages, 
and the traces of its possible existence in ancient times. Thus 
I was led to examine and adopt the opinions of Brian Hodgson, 
Latham, Prichard, and Edwin Norris, as to the Himalayan con- 
nection of Georgian. These were barren at the time, but they 
afterwards helped me to a better solution. I was fortunate, 
too, in obtaining some glimmering light as to the river and 
other names, 

The conduct of these researches had not been, as it may 
have appeared to some, desultory or wild. The necessity of 
investigating facts in all their bearings, very often with none 
but negative results, necessarily extended the field of explor- 
ation, and laid open many collateral paths. It will be seen that 
Georgian had already been treated as allied to Himalayan 
languages, and the more I applied myself to the classification 
of the Caucasian languages, the furthur afield did it become 
necessary to go. The work, too, was as much that of a lin- 
guist as of a philologist, as it was necessary to apply to the 
living polyglot dialects of the Caucasus a practical acquain- 
tance with the idioms of the east and of the west, as well as 
many of those of antiquity. Where Greek once prevailed, 
Georgian, Armenian, Russian, and above all Turkish, are now 
found to exert an influence. 

In a field so new, not only was no encouragement to be met, 
but, as every statement was received with the stubborn sus- 
picion of ignorance, it became necessary to keep back facts, 
and, allowing for the crude state of philology, to check results 
as far as possible by all allied studies, anthropology, mytho- 
logy, archaeology, by the modicum of muddied and muddled 
history. 

It was not self-encouraging to find that there were secret 
and unknown influences, languages still undetected, which 
might be the real and affective causes, even when a happy hit 



Vll 



had been made as to some individual facts. It was necessary 
to publish what might be inexact, and might be erroneous, in 
order to lay open the ground for investigation, and yet with 
small hope of getting the help of other scholars. 

At an early period, a connection became evident between 
the Nile region and the Caucasus, and that with High Asia 
being already acknowledged, it necessarily followed that the 
Caucasus could not be the centre of migration, but only a point 
of passage in the general migrations of the world. 

While keeping attention on these main points, it appeared 
necessary and useful to institute an exploration for the com- 
parison of the main roots of all recorded languages, of which 
about eleven hundred were available. For this purpose, a form- 
ula of comparison was devised, which materially abridged the la- 
bour; but it frequently became necessary to submit a single word 
to the comparison of several hundred languages, before a safe 
result could be obtained. Thus, indications for classification 
were reached which were the foundations of the classification 
and chronology here laid down. With this view, too, it appeared 
desirable to discard the consideration of the later comparative 
grammars, and to build up a knowledge *of the prehistoric 
epochs from the languages of savages, whose culture was 
being turned to such good account by many able men. 

In the early period, the difficulties in getting at facts were 
the greater, because the word sought was sometimes concealed 
under a mythological influence in one or more shapes; in time 
these very circumstances afforded safer criteria; and now that 
a knowledge of the various equivalents of words and roots has 
been obtained, as shown in the Table of Equivalents at Page 21, 
the task is much simplified. It was the more necessary to 
obtain some assurance in one's own mind, because there is a 
strong prejudice among men of science against philology, not 
only on account of the vagaries consequent on the immature 



VI 11 

condition of this branch of science, bnt because there is a strong 
prejudice among those addicted to material studies, and even 
among some philologists, that a word has no vitality or perma- 
nence. There are some who will allow such to a myth, and 
most willingly to a flint weapon, or a skull. There is, further, 
this obstacle, that a philologist is suspected of knowing nothing 
more than the words he picks up in a vocabulary or dictionary; 
and a linguist is worse off, for he is supposed to have lost 
solidity and accuracy the more languages he knows, and to 
have lost originality and individuality the better he adopts a 
foreign idiom. 

Thus, excluded by my own profession from the world of 
science, it appeared to me that it might be useful in the interests 
of knowledge as a whole, to bring archaic philology into union 
with those nascent studies of anthropology, archaeology, and my- 
thology, which have met with acceptance and popularity. It 
cannot be pretended that this has been altogether accomplished, 
but a useful preparation may have been made, if in some cases a 
connection has been established with the text books of others. 
An example of this will be found in the frequent intercommu- 
nion, so far as prehistoric grammar is concerned, with the dis- 
coveries of Mr. Tylor in the field of prehistoric culture. 

With so much that has been discovered as to community of 
origin between the new world and the old, which has become 
of more importance in consequence of the frequent detection 
of remarkable monuments, there is a hesitation in the minds 
of many, because it is believed, or wished to be believed, that 
America is an original centre of its inhabitants and their civili- 
zations. 

My treatise on the Ude language of the Caucasus and its 
connection with Egyptian and Coptic, published by Messrs. 
Triibner., and in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 
contains a statement of the connection of the Agaw of the Nile, 
and the Abkhass of the Caucasus, with the Omagua and Guarani 



IX 



of Brazil. Although the subject of the Agaw languages and 
migrations is reserved for another treatise, which is prepared, 
the subject is carried further here. 

A temptation to examine the Hamath characters, and to 
establish their title as inscriptions, led me to explorations, very- 
useful in these inquiries, and of which some account was given 
in the Journal of the Palestine Exploration Fund. This was 
followed in the same Journal by a paper on the river names of 
Palestine and the Bible, and one on town names. Other pa- 
pers, communicated to the Society of Antiquaries, the Con- 
gress of Orientalists, and the British Association, show that 
there is a harmony among the protohistoric geographical names 
in Canaan, or in Italy, in Asia Minor, or in India. 

Copious as are the facts already printed, and copious as are 
those to be found here, they are selections only from a much 
greater mass of facts collected, classified, and systemised dur- 
ing years. Thus, on the one hand, if the labour of any particu- 
lar portion is hereby lessened, it must be borne in mind that 
my evidence on the head of topographical names or other sub- 
jects is not solely that which is here printed, but that which 
could conveniently be published; it is not brought together at 
haphazard, but in the due order and continuity of work. Those, 
therefore, who may be inclined to think I treat lightly the occur- 
rence of names in Peru or New Granada, may be assured that 
there are few that have not been weighed by me and accepted 
with a due consideration of how much of chance or casual co- 
incidence there must undoubtedly be in any such accumulation 
of facts. 

While engaged in these pursuits, the progress of Accad 
studies has been a most fortunate event, for it has enabled me 
to employ what must be one true method in relation to the 
epoch under treatment. That this has been altogether justly 
applied, it is not for me to say, anymore than it is possible on 



many other matters, now for the first time., and newly, touched 
upon. It is true that forty years of consistent study and labour 
are brought to bear by me ; but the subject is far too vast, and 
embraces too many branches of knowledge for the grasp of any 
one man, and particularly of one who much wants that great 
resource, time. 

It may be asked by some, — why offer to the world statements 
to a certain extent new and crude, to no less a degree subject 
to doubt, and perhaps to disproof ? It is the very necessity of 
the case which compels me, because the amount of truth 
which is inherent requires to be tested by others, and the true 
points in many cases can only be gathered by those who are 
skilled and competent. At all events, whatever may be abso- 
lutely true, there is this reason for publication, that there is 
much here which is true. The further evidence as to the origin 
of language and culture in America means also common origin 
with the Old World of many of the inhabitants, thereby reduc- 
ing the area of the possible aborigines, and bearing on the ques- 
tion of the unity and development of mankind. It necessarily 
means the restoration, as in a palimpsest, of whole books of 
history long lost. If, as is respectfully submitted, the methods 
be right, and the facts be true, then we must remodel and con- 
stitute a prehistoric comparative philology, and we must treat 
with much modification the existing comparative grammars of 
Bopp and Caldwell, and the comparative history of Eenan, and 
prepare the way for the comparative grammars and histories 
of other languages as yet supposed to be unclassified, or 
of which the true constituents have not been known. As an 
example of this, the Ugrian (at p. 11) may be taken. 

In conclusion, there will be the usual objectors who want more 
evidence, and the men of science who allege that particular 
facts are not admitted by them into science. Those may be 
left to themselves; but if any one wishes to test the state- 



merits here made, he can do so readily, for the facts are avail- 
able in accessible manuals, as those of Dr. Latham, Dr. W. 
"W. Hunter, Col. Dalton, Colonel Lane Fox, and Sir George 
Campbell; and it is sincerely to be wished that many new 
students may be so enlisted. One point may be particularly 
pointed out to younger men desirous of original research 
and the honours and dangers of discovery, that if some out 
of the thousands who are learning Sanskrit grammar, and getting 
not one step beyond, will take up the language of a savage tribe, 
ample reward will be obtained. These languages of the living 
are the records of generations dead ages ago; and these words 
which have come from mouth to ear in longest time, breathe 
the thoughts of early worlds. 

HYDE CLARKE. 



32, St. George's Square, S.W. 

January 6th, 1875. 



EESEAECHES IN PEEHISTOEIC AND PEOTOHISTOEIC 
COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY, etc. 



Researches in Prehistoric and Peotohistoric Comparative 
Philology, Mythology, and Archaeology, in Connection 
with the Origin of Culture in America, and its Propa- 
gation by the Sumerian or Akkad Families. By Hyde 
Clarke. 

The old Spanish conquerors of the New World saw with 
wonder the buildings of Mexico and Peru, the seats, even then, 
of ancient empire. The fall of the Montezumas and of the 
Incas was accompanied by that of the civilization of which 
they were the leading representatives. The progress of the new 
ideas of religion and policy, together with the absorbing love of 
gold, rapidly outgrew and displaced the marvels of the ancient 
and strange regime, the less regarded because heathen. 

The people, reduced to slavery, lost the practice of the higher 
arts, and while the palaces and temples went to ruin, or were 
buried under the thick growth of trees and creepers, no others 
were raised. The palaces of the viceroys and the churches of 
the missionaries were after foreign taste, and all tended to the 
forgetfulness of the ancient arts. Where there had been a 
conquering race in power, as that of the Incas, it was brought 
down to the same level of thraldom as its former subjects, the 
Aymaras, under the Spanish yoke, and all ambition and all 
stimulus to distinction were lost, as much as the power of 
bringing together thousands of labourers. As the languages 
were no longer written, except in catechisms, and the old hiero- 
glyphics, quipus, were disused, after four centuries even the his- 
tory that might have helped us has died off, leaving scanty and 
obscure remains. 

The great buildings of Central and South America have been 
sufficiently described to be known to scholars, and their antique 
types have been the subject of much speculation during periods 

b2 



4 Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

when the history of the human race, but ill-known now, was 
most imperfectly understood. According to the fancy of the 
writer, everything has been explained by reference to Egypt, 
to later India, or to China. 

The gradual extension of exploration and settlement in the 
United States has, however, brought to light the fact that vast 
countries, which, for three hundred years at least, have been 
held by wandering savages, were occupied with monuments not 
less noteworthy and much more ancient than those to the south. 

Step by step we have been brought to the conviction that the 
American continents have been held in* times of yore by popu- 
lations more or less forward, and in most cases more so than the 
present tribes, who have lost all knowledge of the monument 
builders, or attribute their works to races, which it can be 
ascertained, have no right to such a claim. 

Strange as this state of things may seem, it can be understood 
with a little thought by what has happened in this island. 
When we dig down in the city some dozen or fifteen feet we 
come upon many remains of the Eoman city, buried under 
layer and layer of house rubbish, garden mould, or the ashes of 
fires. Still deeper we reach bogs where are horns and bones 
belonging to a yet earlier time. (See Eesearches of Col. Lane 
Fox.) If we go abroad we see the hills topped with barrows, 
clad with thickets of trees, or bare and sharp, marking out their 
lines against the sky around us. In the west we see mounds 
of great stones, others in heaps built together, some balancing 
on peaks of rocks. We amused ourselves with calling these 
Druidic monuments, until we made out that we knew little 
about Druids, and that these great stone monuments were to be 
found in many lands beyond the reach of Druids or Celts. 

Thus we learn how little we truly know of what has gone by 
in this island, of which we fill up every nook, and scan every 
yard of surface, nay turn over with spade or plough every foot 
of ground. We begin dimly to look back as it were on the 
torn-out leaves of a faded book, unknowing how to piece and 
patch together what should come first and what last, undoing 
now what seemed right yesterday, and by the help of some 
new found stray bit eking out a blank, or showing forth some 
awkward fault. 






Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



This is our state with all the help we can bring to bear, but, 
in the hunting grounds of the west, the bloodthirsty savage still 
hovers, and neither what is above ground, nor what is below, can 
be carefully searched by the few explorers, and it is less to be 
wondered at that we know anything than that we know so little. m 

The slow bringing to light of so many records of the past 
gave rise to a crowd of speculations as to the mode in which 
America was peopled, and as to the races to which the several 
classes of monuments are to be awarded. Into these specula- 
tions it is of little good now to enter, as they are mostly built 
up without any fair ground, as the ignorance or dreaming of each 
man has prompted. There is no language which has not been 
said to have been found in America, as well Gaelic as Chinese or 
Japanese, which it is alleged has proved a ready means of 
converse. 

Closely knit with the whole matter, however, is that question of 
the population of America, which has busied many men of learning 
during long time. This takes two shapes, the assumption that 
the Americas contain an inborn, indigenous or original population, 
the other that they were peopled from the old world. 

It is a strange fancy with which the offspring of Europeans 
are seized to believe that everything in America is great and 
original, seeing that they themselves are strangers in the land, 
seeing too how much they are dependent on the horse, ox, and 
sheep brought in by their forefathers, and on the grain first 
sown by them. The Spanish-speaking Peruvian has some 
excuse for this, because most of his blood is Indian, but the. 
people of New England or Virginia are without a drop or more 
than a drop of the blood of the Indians, with whom they never 
wedded, and whom they have driven off to die out in the 
wilderness. Still there is this fancy, and every American is 
ready to believe that there is something especially American 
in the blood of the Indians and in their speech, and these 
opinions react in Europe. There are distinct animals in the 
western world, the puma, the llama, the condor, the alligator, the 
rattlesnake, the timber is other than in the east, and why should 
not men be so too, and of other birth ? It has been generally 
affirmed that there is a common likeness between all Indians, 



6 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

however far apart, and that there is an American grammar, 
which is said to be recognizable in every tongue, however unlike 
its roots may be, and America, it may be noted, is the land of a 
thousand tongues, which bar converse between tribe and tribe, 
many of them scanty in number, and shut up in narrow bounds. 
The explanation, however, is to be sought in epochs of grammar, 
that is, in prehistoric, and not in geographical limits. 

If the population of America is of home growth and 
aboriginal, then its civilization must be either aboriginal or 
imported from the east by a few people, wanderers, chiefs, or 
missionaries. We may at this point find standing ground. True 
it is, stray ships and canoes do drift across the Pacific, as they 
may have done over the Atlantic Ocean, but then the monuments 
in the south, and in the north more particularly, are so many and 
on such a scale that they are beyond such slender means, and 
show themselves as the work of great races. 

Although some identifications have here been proposed, yet 
the great mass of the languages of America have been no 
more classified than are those of Africa and Caucasia. Every- 
where we meet the same phenomena, better known to us in 
Caucasia, a number of dissimilar languages thrown together, 
but proceeding from dissimilar origins. 

This is not peculiar to the Caucasus. We find it on the 
Nile, in West Africa, and in several regions of America. We 
do not, however, find in the New World such phenomena of 
wide-spread languages as in the Old World, the Chinese^'and 
-the Indo-European, The only parallel we have is the Guarani 
branch of the Agaw in the Brazils, but the number is not com- 
parable. A widespread language is the Malay. Next to this 
class is the extension of the Sumerian or Peru-Pesruan. 

o 

It is, however, generally acknowledged that there is one lan- 
guage or race, that of the Eskimos, common to both worlds in 
the north of Asia and America. This is generally supposed to 
be that of the last comers, but it is quite within possibility that 
the race is very ancient, although it may have changed its lan- 
guage for that of a conqueror. 

The Eskimo language may be regarded as among the most 
ancient known to us, and belongs to the groups of languages 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 7 

used by the short races, and of which one form is to be observed 
at the very other end of the Continent, in Tierra del Fuego. 
These again may be ascertained to be connected by various 
languages spoken by low populations in the Eocky Mountains, 
while others are to be noticed in the far east of Brazil on the 
Atlantic shore at Bahia, 

These races, driven to the ends of the Continent and to head- 
lands, as in the old world, are by language and by blood in some 
cases allied with that kind of Negritos or short races, of which 
the little men of the Minkopies in the Andamans, or of Bushmen 
in South Africa, afford a good type. These weak and low races, 
which may be called Pygmean, driven out by others stronger 
and perhaps more barbarous, in an early time covered both 
worlds. They only attest ancient occupation, and could not have 
supplied the monuments of any kind. 

It is a singular thing that in one tribe of the Eocky Moun- 
tains, where the speech is akin to that of the short tribes, the 
men are as tall as their neighbours, but their women are marked 
as being very short. 

Sir John Lubbock (British Association, Liverpool, Sept. 1870) 
has even hinted at the possibility of races allied to the Esquimaux 
having existed in England, and this is in conformity with the 
phenomena of human migrations as illustrated by language. 
The languages of the Akka Pygmies of the Nile (Pygmies of 
Herodotus), and of the Obongo of Du Chaillu, appear to belong 
to some included in the Carib-Dahomey. 

The Austral Pygmean includes the Andaman Minkopie of 
Tickell; the Muskogolge or Creek, the Natchez in North 
America; the Alikulip and Tekeenika of Tierra del Fuego. 
Some Tasmanian roots appear to belong to this. 

The Septentronal Pygmean includes the Andaman Min- 
kopie of Colebrooke; the Shoshoni, Utah, Comanch, Netela, 
Kij, etc., of North America ; the Bayano and Darien of Central 
America; the Mayoruna, Kiriri, etc., of Brazil; the Dalla of 
Abyssinia; the Gonga languages, and probably the Wolof of 
West Africa ; but of this further is said. 

The Polar Pygmean includes the Eskimo languages of 
America and Asia, and the Bushman of South Africa. 



Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



The Oonalashkan appears to be the link between the Eskimo 
and the Yeniseian. This latter class must be very early. 

A remarkable exception to the languages of the short races is 
that of the Akka, already referred to. 

The Wolof has great affinities with the Pygmean. The people 
call themselves black. On the other side the Wolof appears to 
be in transition to Carib-Dahomey and to Yasco Kolarian. 

A noticeable circumstance is that the Khond languages of 
Central India are allied to the Wolof, namely, the Gondi, 
Gayeti, Butluk, Naikude, Kolami, Madi, Madia, Kuri, Kei- 
kadi, and Khond. These languages have been much affected 
by Dravidian. 

The surroundings of this group are no less remarkable, being, 
except Savara (?), all African, namely, the Gadaba Agaw, and the 
Kolarian (Yasco-Kolarian) allied to the languages of West 
Africa, near the Wolof. 

The Sandeh language is that of a remarkable people of the 
Nile region of the Nya Nya or Mam-Mam (Schweinfurth, Lin- 
guistische Ergebnisse). Notwithstanding the opinion of Living- 
stone, the people must be regarded as cannibals. Traces of their 
language exist in the Tasmanian and in the Sunda of Java, the 
Saru, the Guebese, and the Tsle of Pines. Its chief ally was Tas- 
manian. The numerals appear to be in series of right and left 
hands. There is no appearance of the negative series. In 
animal names there are conformities with the Bongo or Dor. 

The ISTya Nya people sharpen their teeth. Dr. A. B. Meyer, 
of Manilla, in the course of a short visit, found skulls in the 
Philippines with the teeth so sharpened. This had been pre- 
viously described by the old traveller Thevenot (" Zeitschrift f iir 
Ethnologie," M). 6, 1873). It is to be remarked that the boo- 
merang, as illustrated by Colonel Lane Fox, in contradistinction 
to Darwin ("Desc. Man" ch. v, p. 183), conforms to the line of the 
Sandeh influence. 

With the Papuan and Australian classes, I am in no position 
to deal definitely, except to classify them as languages of great 
antiquity. In both, Pygmean and Sandeh influences are to be 
suspected. 






Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 9 

The Kamchatdale and the Koriak appear to me to have 
ancient and wide relations. The Eodiya of Ceylon shows some 
resemblance. 

There is a strange coincidence with the Thug dialect of India. 
Five in Koriak is myllangan (equivalent to hand). In Thug, 
molu is five, and gona is hand. 

The Garo of India appears to constitute an early class. It 
has affinities to Yangaro of Gonga in North-East Africa, and 
perhaps to the Dulla. In North America it is, perhaps, repre- 
sented by the Paduca. [See Akka.] 

The Sour of Savara in India I cannot define. It stands out 
very distinctly among the Non- Aryan languages. 

The Thug and Bogwan dialects or jargons show some con- 
nection. 

The Yuma of North- West America is a curious family. It 
includes Cuchana, Oocamaricopa, Dieguno, Mohave, Khwakla- 
mayu, and Kulanapu. The latter and the Gallinomero, as here- 
after said, are reputed to have affinities to the Chinese. The 
Itonama of South America, and possibly the Oregones, are allied 
to the Yuma. 

The Lenca languages of Honduras, the Guajiquiro, the Opatero 
and Intibuca appear to be connected with the Kouri, Koama, 
Legba, Bagbalan, Keamba, etc. 

The Carib-Dahomey class includes two warlike and blood- 
thirsty divisions in Africa and America. In West Africa the 
Whydah, Dahomey, A dam pi, Anfue, Krepec, Mahe, Popo. In 
America the Carib with Baniwa, Baree; Uanambeu, Juri; 
Purus, Coroato, Corope, Guato of Brazil; Cherente and Cha- 
vante of the Tocantins. To this group possibly belong the 
Coretu languages of the Orinoco. 

Although there are many points of relationship between the 
Carib and the Dahomey, yet what is more assured is a connection 
with the Ankaras and Wun of Africa, which have a distinct 
affiliation with the Baniwa branch of the Carib. 

To the Uanembeu and Coretu branches of the Carib, the Aino 
of Yesso, etc., has affinities. This class may have reached 
America by the northern route, and also by the Pacific. 

Through the kindness of Professor Panceri, the Marchese 



10 Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

Antinori, and the Italian Geographical Society, I was favoured 
with some early specimens of the language of his two pygmies, 
Akkas, from the Nile region. They exhibit a conformity with 
the Ankaras and Wun, and with the Baniwa-Carib, also with 
Bongo, Moko, Cango, Eungo, and Wolof of Africa, Garo and 
Bodo of India, with Aino, and strangely enough with Javanese. 
Short races are found in Brazil. 

The study of the group here named Carib-Dahomey is of great 
prehistoric interest. 

The Kichai and Hueco of Texas appear to be related to Iro- 
quois, Pawnee, and Caddo. 

The Nicaraguan Masaya is related to the North American 
Mandan, Yankton, Winnebago, Dahkota, Osage, or Sioux. 

The Cherokee and Catawba of North America are related to 
the Abiponian of the Missions of South America, Mbaya, 
Mbokobi, Vilela, Lule. There appears to be a relation to the 
Eellatah of Africa. 

The Kasias are remarkable as the builders of megalithic 
monuments. As yet I have not been able to affiliate this lan- 
guage. I have recognised resemblances to Naga, Mru, Bongo, 
and Begharmi. It would appear as if the constructors of mega- 
lithic and monolithic monuments, were the rude predecessors 
of the city and temple builders. The Kasias lie near the' Indo- 
Chinese. 

The Kaffir and Berber classes I am unable to deal with. 
Dr. W. H. Bleek has shown, with regard to the Bantu or Kaffir, 
not only that it has Australasian alliances, but that its formations 
are to be found in the Semitic and Aryan languages. In a 
paper read before the Ethnological Society, I showed that the 
language of the Guanches was to be added to the Berber. 

The Kazi Kumuk of the Caucasus has affinities for the West 
African Km, Yala, and Kasa. 

The Agaw class is one of the most remarkable of the pre- 
historic epoch. 

(a) The Asiatic branches are Caucasian (Abkhass, Avkass, 
Absne) ; in High Asia Kajunah(?); in India Gadaba(?); and 
the Rodiya of Ceylon (?). 

(b) Australasia: Galela, etc. 

(c) Africa, North : Agaw, Agawmidr, Waag, Falasha or Black 
Jews, Dizzela, Fertit, Shankali, Koldagi, Somanli ; in the West 
Egbele, Olomo, Buduma, Pati, Bayon, Bagba, Bamon, etc. (p. 157). 

(d) America, North: Skwali, Sekumne, Tsamak; in Brazil, 
etc., Guarani, Tupi, Omagua, Mundrucu, Apiaca; in the Missions ; 
Morima, Sarareca ; on the Orinoco, San Pedro, Coretu. 

There seems to have been anciently a European branch, the 
Akhaioi or Achivi, who afterwards became Hellenised. They 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 1 1 

very probably occupied Aquitania also. To the Egyptians, they 
were known as Akaiusha [see F. Lenormant, " Origines"] ; 
and as sons of Ham. are represented in Genesis by Havilah. 

In the West, anciently they were settled near the Lesghians, 
Lycians, Cilicians (Kilikians), Lakonians, and Ligurians (Gush?). 

This class exercised a great influence in the propagation of 
culture. Its members seem anciently to have been all black. 

To the Agaw class some Lake dwellers may be assigned. The 
Lake dwellers in Guiana now speak Guarani or Agau, and those 
of Lake Prasias were in undoubted proximity to Akhaioi, nor are 
the older lake sites remote from the ancient Akhaioi. [House 
and village = water, lake, etc.] 

Many of the great rivers were probably named in the Agaw 
migrations, as Iberus, etc., Parana, etc. The Affaws were forerun- 
ners in America of the Sumerians. The Guarani animal names 
are distinctly Agaw. 

A great class among the prehistoric languages, approaching 
the protohistoric, is the Yasco-Kolaeian. 

(a) In Europe it includes the Basque in its several forms. 

( o) In Asia, Caucasian, the Lesghian, Kazi Kumuk, Akush 
Mizjezghi, A war, etc. 

(c) In India, the Kolarian group, Ho, Singbhum, Sontali, 
Bhumij, Mundari, Uraon, Kuri, Juang, etc. 

(d) In Eastern Asia, Korean (?). 

(e) In North Africa, the Furian. 

(f) In West Africa, the Houssa, Mandingo, Bambarra, Yoruba 
languages, the Ebo, Ashantee and Fantee, Kossa, Fulah. 

(Connected with the Akush may be the Kru, Grebo, Gbe, 
Dewoi, Bassa, Aro, Mbofia, Isoama, Isiele, Yala. (Compare 
Kazi-Kumuk). 

(g) For America, I have not yet determined the members, but 
the Puelche of the Pampas appears to be one, and perhaps the 
Attakapa. 

The Yasco-Kolarian has Tree and House conforming to Yillage 
and Grove. The roots for Tooth and Bone supply names for im- 
plements. The names of beasts are based on those for the dog, 
and altogether the early elements appear to belong to a stage 
when men were passing from an age of stone to one of bone, 
and from caves to tree dwellings. 

The grammar exhibits what I have termed the Negative 
Series well developed. Its mythology is dual, not trinary or 
trinitarian, and traces of animism are defined. The early rudi- 
ments of culture are attested by the verbs. 

At present, all the northern members are white or brown, and 
all the southern members black, but, in the time of Herodotus 
blacks existed as far north as the Caucasia. 



12 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Bnt 



One striking feature is that, notwithstanding the prese 
social differences, the people are and have been warlike. The 
Basques resisted the Eomans as they do the Spaniards ; the 
Avars attacked the Eoman Empire ; the Lesghians, under 
Shamyl, resisted the Eussians ; the Sonthals rose in rebellion 
against ns ; the Koreans beat off the Americans and French, as 
they resisted the Chinese and Japanese ; the Ashantees have 
encountered ns in a war, where Houssas and Kossas also fought. 
The characteristic is general and persistent. The Eeverend 
A. H. Sayce points out Basque affinities in Accad or Sumerian. 
These, as well as the Ugrian affinities (see Sayce and Lenor- 
mant), are most likely to be accounted for from the Hamitic 
relations. (See Ugrian, p. 157.) 

In its Caucasian branch the Akush may stand in relation to 
the scheme in Genesis as Cush or Kush, with Mitzraim 
(Egyptian), Havilah (Agaw), and Canaan (Paleo-Georgian), that 
is with Accad and with Hamath. If so, these may all be treated 
for prehistoric purposes as Hamitic. [Comp. E. von Bunsen.] 

The Yasco-Kolarian class has this attribute, that it particu- 
larly influenced the Dravidian, with which it has been assimi- 
lated by Caldwell and other authorities. Its main negative roots 
Gaba conform with Sumerian Paka, showing the same mental 
basis of formation. 

The Lycian language differs from the others in Asia Minor, 
and, as pointed out, populations with allied names are found in 
proximity to those of Agaw names. M. Lenormant has sug- 
gested that Lycian and Lakonian were perhaps allied. It is 
possible to go further, and suggest a distinct Lesghian origin 
[the Georgian is Lekki], which may be referable to Peleg and 
Pelasgic, and may include Cilicians (Kilikians), Leleges, Luca- 
nians, Ligurians, and Ligyes. 

The Abkass and Lesghian populations may have been united 
in raids in the Mediterranean. 

What is the exact place of the Ugrian class, or what are its 
real constituents, I am unable to determine. By some it is held 
to include four chief branches, and is treated as Altaic, that is 
Finnic (including Magyar), Mongolic, Manchoo, and Turkic. 

I am by no means satisfied that the connection goes further 
than a common subjection to the influence of a contemporaneous 
prehistoric epoch, affording a community of grammar and a par- 
ticipation in some terms of culture. For that matter, like in- 
fluences, though to a slighter degree, may be recognised even in 
English. 

So far as the Finnic or Ugrian is concerned, an important 
member is to be added, and that consists of tribes in East JSTe- 
paul and the frontiers of Tibet and China, including Eoclong, 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 13 

Eungchenbung, Chhingtangya, Nachhering, Waling, Yakha, 
Chourasaya, Kulimgya, Thulungya, Bahinga, Lohorong, Lam- 
bichhong, Balali, Sangpang, Dumi, Khaling, Dungmali, and Ki- 
ranti in East Nepaul ; Takpa and Manyak on the Chinese fron- 
tier ; Sunwar, Gurung ; Moormi, Magar, and Newar in Nepaul ; 
and Vayn among the broken tribes of Nepaul. The languages 
of North-west Bengal, which are influenced by the Himalayan 
Ugrian, are Boclo, Borro, Kaehari, and Dhimal ; and the Miri 
(Abor and Sibsagur) of the eastern frontier of Bengal. 

It will be seen that among the above names is Magar, and 
this and its neighbours closely approximate to Magyar, as other 
languages do to Fin. There is strong ground for believing that 
the settlement of Hungary was effected by a large body of tribes 
of Himalayan Ugrians, under Avar or Khunzag (Hun or Les- 
ghian) leaders. There is, however, a Hung sub tribe of the 
Limbu. Thus a Finnic language was introduced rather from 
the Himalayas than from North-western Asia. 

[It may be noted that on the Gaboon in Africa some affinities 
of language are to be traced in Bayon, Pati, Kum, Bagba, Ba- 
lu, Bamon, Ngoala, Momenyah, Papiah, Param, but these also 
shuw affinity with Agaw, p. 154.] 

The Eev. A. H. Sayce (" Akkad Seal" in Journal of Philology) 
has shown some strong resemblances between Akkad and Ugrian, 
particularly in pronouns and numerals, and these have been 
supported by M. E. Sayous and M. F. Lenormant (" Lenormant 
Etudes Accadiennes/' vol. i, part 1, p. 200, and part 3, p. 133, also 
Magie, 1874). The test of pronouns accepted by philologists is 
very weak (see Pronouns after). In my view the affinities are 
not to be regarded as confined to Ugrian, because some of the 
alleged affinities are common to the prehistoric epoch, and others 
are to be attributed to the, as yet, undetermined influence, which 
equally affects the Tibetan and the Chinese. The relation of 
Georgian with Akkad is very great, and yet it is none the less so 
with Tibetan, as was illustrated by Bryan Hodgson, Dr. Latham, 
Dr. Prichard, and Edwin Norris. This view I supported, but I 
am inclined materially to modify it. 

With regard to the Manchoo I have stated (in the Phoenix) 
that the few remaining Scythian words preserved by Herodotus 
appear to conform. 

The Malay class is to be regarded as prehistoric from the 
evidence of the culture of the populations, though the popula- 
tions and their languages must have been largely modified by 
protohistoric influences, but at the same time they bear also the 
impress of the ruder prehistoric classes, even of the Sandeh, the 
Akka, and probably of the Pygmean. 

The Circassian and Otomi, etc., may be either intermediate be- 



14 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

tween Agaw and Sumerian, or are to be included with the latter. 
If so, they were outlying and advanced members, and in the oc- 
cupation of America must have closely followed the Agaw. 

As protohistoric languages I propose Egyptian, Sumero- 
Peruvian, Chinese, Tibetan, Dravidian. 

The protohistoric languages will be found to be less widely 
distributed than the prehistoric. With the exception of the great 
branches of the Sumerian (Peruvian, Mexican, etc.), and a doubt- 
ful affinity of Dravidian, they did not reach America. 

It was only through the Egyptian they affected North-east 
Africa and West Africa, nor did they spread over Australasia. 

Where the Egyptian class should be placed I am unable to 
determine. It includes, as I have shown (" Comparative Gram- 
mar of Egyptian, Coptic, and Ude," in " Journal of Anthropolo- 
gical Institute," 1873), the Ude language of the Caucasus. Its 
characteristics are those of remote antiquity. Leo Eeinisch, in 
his laborious work on the unity of language (Vienna, 1874), has 
illustrated the connections of the Egyptian and Coptic with the 
Teda or Tibbu class. With this subject Dr. Carl Abel of Berlin 
is now dealing. 

Thus we obtain a conformity of ethnographical facts, observed 
elsewhere, for we should find Mitzraim in the neighbourhood of 
Kush in a North African centre. 

The Sumero-Peruvian class will be dealt with in detail in the 
after part of this memoir. 

The Chinese class requires to be more carefully studied, be- 
cause, as the Chinese has been influenced by other earlier civili- 
zations, there has been a fancy to give to similar phenomena in 
other languages, or in other culture, a Chinese Origin. The alleged 
influence of Chinese in America is referred to hereafter as more 
probably Sumerian. 

Of the Tibetan class the same remark is to be made. Thus 
the followers of Bryan Hodgson, including myself, have included 
under Tibetan what will most likely have to be separated, cer- 
tainly the Himalayo-Ugrian. A common religious influence, as 
in the case of Islam, is very apt to lead to similar and common 
appearances in language and culture. 

As regards the Dravidian class my object is to avoid entering 
into detail. I believe its influence to be much smaller in truth 
than what Caldwell and other Indian authorities, looking at it 
from a Tamil stand point, have been inclined to attribute to 
Dravidian. Vasco-Kalarian has greatly influenced this class. 

To Dravidian should most likely be referred Japanese and 
Loochoo, which have likewise Basque similarities. The Brahui 
(Caldwell, p. 25) has Tamil affinities (Eelice Einzi, II Brahui, 
1870). 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc, 15 

The Circassian of the Caucasus and the Chetemacha of North 
America show some affinity to Dravidian, but the Circassian is 
allied to the Othomi of Mexico, and is for the present classed 
with Sumerian. 

As yet, I have failed to account for an important period in 
language and culture, which greatly influenced the historic 
period. Passing beyond the dual system, or more properly that 
of pairs and positive and negative elements, a sacred system of 
three was introduced. In grammar we have these triple forms, 
and triliteral roots, the latter in Semitic and the other in Aryan. 
Mythology was greatly affected by a trinitarian and triune 
system, embracing one great member, one male and one female. 

In grammar, there are three parts (noun, verb, and participle), 
three nouns (noun, adjective, and pronoun), three numbers, three 
cases, three degrees, three verbs (active, neuter, or middle, and pas- 
sive), three persons, three tenses, three moods, three participles, three 
particles (adverb, preposition and conjunction), three concords. 

As Historic languages, I classify Semitic, Aryan. 

As my present programme is to deal with the earlier stages of 
language, this epoch is passed by. It is, however, necessary to 
observe that many roots and characteristics, which are regarded 
as Semitic or Aryan, are in reality prehistoric, and that for the 
consideration of the prehistoric and protohistoric periods, the 
historic aspect is generally useless or mischievous. The same 
remark applies equally to mythology and philology. It is also 
untrue that Sanskrit in itself affords evidence as to the early 
culture of mankind, apart from the prehistoric languages. 

These classes of languages, prehistoric and protohistoric, are 
now chiefly found in various regions, which in some periods 
have been centres of migration, and in others centres of refuge 
for the earlier races driven in by those more powerful of the 
protohistoric and historic epochs. 

The chief of these regions are : — High Asia, Caucasia, North 
East Africa (Nile), West Africa, India, North-East Asia, North 
America, Central America, South America. 

The distribution and order of succession may thus be repre- 
sented : — (See next page.) 

The relations of High Asia may thus be briefly represented : 





High Asia. Caucasus. 


Africa. 


America. 


Agaw or Havi 








lah 


Kajunah ... Avkhas 


. Agaw 


. Omagua 


Ugrian 


E.NepauLTurk, 








Mongol ... — 


Bayon, etc. . 


— 


Egyptian 


(Mitzraim) ... Ude ... 


• Egyptian 


— 


Sumerian 


. (Unknown) ... Georgian? . 


— 


Peruvian, etc 


Chinese 


. Chinese 


— 


— 


Tibetan 


. Tibetan 


— 





Ayran ... 


. Dard Ossetinian . 


— 


— 



1G 



Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



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Protoliistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



17 



There can be no reasonable doubt that High Asia is a centre 
to which in ancient times, on the west Caucasia, the Nile and 
West Africa conformed, as India did to the south ; but it has 
been denuded of its early black races, and of many later. For 
instance, the number of Aryans is very small. 

From High Asia, Caucasia was supplied to the west, and 
thence the African regions, which present a parallel. To the 
south are found India and Australasia, and to the east, North 
east Asia, North America, Central America, and South America. 
If the southern margins, including Aaros, etc.. were taken, w^e 
should obtain early prehistoric members. 

The following shows the relations of the Caucasian centre : 

Caucasia. W. Africa. N. Africa. Europe. 



Kazi Kumuk Kru 
Agaw or Havilah ... Avkbass 
Vasco-Kolarian or Cush Leso-kian 



Egyptian or Mitzraim . Ude... 
Sumerian or Canaan ... Georgian 
„ Circassian 

Dravidian — 

Aryan Ossetinian 



Houssa. 
Tibbu.. 



Agaw 
Furian 

Mitzraim 



(Akhaioi) 

(Ligurian?) 

Basque 

Etruscan? 



W. Aryans 



High Asia. 

Agaw or Havilah ... Kajunah 
Vasco-Kolarian or Cush — 

Egyptian or Mitzraim.. (Mitzraim?) . 
Sumerian or Canaan ... (Akkad) 



Dravidian 
Aryan 



Dard 



India. 

Gadaba? 
Kolarian 

Peguan 

Dravidian 
Aryans 



America. 



Oraagua 
Puelche? 

Peruvian 
Othomi 



The languages and mythology of High Asia were reproduced, 
and their parallels were found in Caucasia, which came in the 
historical school of Babylon to be regarded as the Paradise or 
cradle of the human race. The migrations were transferred to 
the Nile region, and at a later day the localities were mixed up 
with those of Caucasia and High Asia. 



The following shows the relations of the Nile centre 





N. Africa. 


W. Africa. 


Pygmean 


... Gonga 


— 


Sandeh ... 


... Sandeh 


— 


Garo 


... Yangaro .. 


— 


Khasia ... 


... Bongo 


Begharmi . 


Agaw 


... Agaw 


Egbele 


Egyptian 


... Egyptian .. 


Tibbu 


Semitic ... 


... Subsemitic. 


— ■ 



Europe. 



(Akhaioi) 



Caucasia. 



Avkhass 
Ude 



18 


Hyde-Claeke.— 


■Researches 


in Prehistoric 


and 




High Asia. 


India. 


Australia. 


America 


Pygmean 


— 


— 


Andaman . 


.. Shoshon 


Sandeh 


— 


— 


Tasmania . 


— 


Garo 


— 


Garo 


... (Java?) . 


.. Paduca? 


Khasia . . 


— 


Khasia 


— 


— 


Agaw 


... Kajunah .. 


Gadaba 


. . . Galela 


.. Omagua 


Egyptian 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Semitic .. 


— 


— 


— 


— 



The Nile region must be looked upon as the transmitting 
station for West Africa. 

The following shows the relations of West Africa, as a centre 



U1 J-W'-Llfc, "<* & ^ "^ 


W. Africa. 


"N". Africa. 


Caucasia. 


India. 


Wolof 


. Wolof 


— 


— 


Khond 


Lenca-Kouri .. 


. Kouri 


— 


— 


— 


C arib - D aho m ey 


. Dahomey ... 


Akka 


— 


Garo 


„ 


(Fellatah?)... 


— 


— 


— 


>> 


Kru 


— 


Kazi-Kumuk 


— 


Agaw 


Egbele, etc... 


Agaw 


Avkhass ... 


Gadaba 


Vasco-Kolarian . 


. Houssa, etc.. 


Furian 


Lesghian ... 


Kol 


TJgrian 


. Bayon, etc... 


— 


— 


E. Nepaul 


Egyptian 


. Tibboo? ... 


Egyptian . . . 


Ude 


— 




Asia. 


N. America. 


C. America. 


S. America 


Wolof 


— 


— 





— 


Lenca-Kouri .. 


— 


— 


Lenca 


Coretu ? 


Carib-Dahomey . 


. Aino 


— 


— 


Carib 


>> 


— 


Catawba ... 


— 


— 


Agaw 


. Kajunah ... 


Skwali 





Om-agua 


Vasco-Kolarian . 


— 


Attakapa ?... 


— 


Puelche ? 






Ugrian TJgrian 

Egyptian ... — — — — 

It will be seen that the copious series of West African classes 
are transmitted from the east, and must have traversed the Nile 
region ; and the barbarism of W. Africa is attributable to its 
non-participation in the higher migrations. 

Passing from High Asia to the south, we have to consider the 
relations of India as a centre, which are thus illustrated : 





India. Africa 


Caucasia. 


America. 


Misc. 


Wolof ... 


..Khond ...Wolof 





Carib 





Kamchatdale . 


..Thug ... — 


[ka — 


— 


Kamchat- 


Garo 


..Garo ...YangarOj 


Ak- — 


Paduca, N. 


— [dale 


Khasia ... 


..Khasia ...Bongo 


— 


— 


— 


Agaw ... 


..Gadaba ...Agaw 


...Avkhas 


..Omagua, S. 


— 


>} 


..Bodiya ...Egbele 


— 


Skwali, N.. 


— 


Vasco-Kolarian. Kol ...Houssa 


...Lesghian . 


.Puelche? . 


..Korean 


TJgrian 


..E. Nepaul.Bayon 


— 


' — 


TJgrian 


Sumerian 


..Cambojan. — 


Georgian? . 


.Peruvian . 


.Indo-China 


>> ' 


..Peguan ... — 


Circassian?. 


.Othomi 


— 


Tibetan 


..Tibetan ... — 


— 


— 


Tibetan 


Dravidian 


Tamil ... — 


— 


— 


Japanese ? 


Aryan ... 


.Aryan ... — 


Ossetinian. 


— 


W. Aryan 



Prolohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



19 



N. E. Asia. 


America. 


Africa. 


Eskimo 
Aino 

? 
Korean 
Japanese 


Eskimo 

Carib 

Om-agua 
. Puelche? 

Chetemacha?.. 


Bushman 
Dahomey 
Agaw 
Houssa, etc 



In the prehistoric period there was an absolute conformity 
between India and Africa, which is confirmed by collateral 
ethnological facts. 

From India was most probably the route of departure for 
Australasia, and for Indo- China, and through these to America 
in the later epochs. 

North-east Asia constituted a centre of passage for migration. 



Pygmean 

Carib 

Agaw 

Vasco-Kolarian ... 
Dra vidian 

The Agaw class appears to have left no representatives in 
north-east Asia, nor did the Sumerian. They are, however, 
most developed in the southern regions of America. It is to be 
inferred that whilst the other and earlier migrations passed over 
Bahring's Straits, the latter passed over the Pacific by Easter 
Island. The mound builders may have passed over by the 
northern route, but they may have been intermediate between 
the Sumerian and Agaw migrations. 

The relation of the languages of America with those of the old 
world has been exhibited at each stage, but the comparison is 
shown in a succeeding table, and which represents an affinity of 
at least a hundred languages on each side. 

Languages common to America and the Old World. 



Pygmean 



Garo 

Lenca-Kouri 

Carib-Dahomey 

Agaw 

Vasco-Kolarian 

Sumerian 



America. 
Creek, Natchez, N. 
T. delFuego ... 
Shoshoni, N., Darien, C. 
May or una, S. ... 
Eskimo, N. 
Paduca? N". 
Honduras, C. ... 
Carib, S. 
Omagua, S. 
Puelche? S. 
Attakapa? N. ... 
Maya, Mexican, C. 
Peruvian, S. 
Othomi, N. 



Old World. 
Mincopie 

Mincopie 
Gonga, Afr. 
Eskimo 

Garo, Yangaro, Afr. 
Kouri, Afr. 
Dahomey, Afr. Aino 
Agaw, Afr. Avkhas 
Houssa, Afr. Kol 

Indo-Chinese 

Akkad 

Circassian 



With the absolute chronology of these successions I do not 
propose to deal. Three thousand years ago, the Sumerian race 
had come in contact with the Semitic, to which it had to suc- 
cumb. Seven hundred years later is perhaps to be taken as the 
epoch of conflict with the Aryan race. This, however, gives us no 
real instrument of measure. We do not sufficiently know how 
far the members of the Hamitic classes are to be regarded as 
synchronous. 

c 2 



20 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

This is to be observed, on the other hand, that it must have 
taken long periods for races so weak as the Pygmean to have 
permeated the world, penetrating to Tierra del Euego by travers- 
ing Behring's Straits and the whole Pacific coast of the Americas. 

Although the Sumerians were assailed by the Semites three 
thousand years ago they were only overcome by the Spaniards 
four hundred years since and in Indo-China they still nourish. 
The question, therefore, is not the duration of culture in the form 
of language, but what are the spaces required for its develop- 
ment. 

If the Sumerian settlement in Babylonia took place four thou- 
sand years ago (see Ernest de Bunsen, " Chronology of the Bible") 
then the settlement in India would be of the same date, if the 
migration was from a common centre in High Asia, as the divi- 
sion of West and East Sumerian in pronouns and other details 
seems to indicate. 

The settlements in Indo-China would shortly follow, and after- 
wards the occupation of Java and the islands. 

It is quite within compass that Pera was reached three thou- 
sand years ago, or even four or five thousand. It is to be ob- 
served that the Malay occupation of Australasia must have cut 
off the Sumerian intercourse with America. Then it is to be 
taken into consideration that if the intercourse had been kept up 
at a time when large ships were used by the Phoenicians, Chinese, 
Greeks, Eomans or Arabs, we should have witnessed different 
conditions. Cattle and horses would have been carried across 
the Pacific. Had the intercourse from Indo-China to South 
America been fresh in the memory the Arab navigators would 
have heard of it.* 

There is a prevalent notion among naturalists that words are 
perishable and cannot be transmitted, but that is founded on an 
erroneous conception, particularly of facts stated by Mr. A. E. 
Wallace. It is certainly true that under some circumstances 
words are subject to mutation, but even in this respect there are 
mostly limits to mutation ; but it is, nevertheless, certain that 
words can be transmitted for thousands of years. So far as the 
Sumerian is concerned words written three or four or five thou- 
sand years ago in Babylonia, where the language is extinct, are 
preserved in an unwritten form by American populations. Still 
longer periods must have passed for the diffusion of the identical 
words in the Kolarian of India and of Houssa, and more still for 
the period of diffusion of Wolof in Africa and Khond in India. 

* It is possible that the legend of the roc, in Sindbad's voyages, may refer 
to the condor, and that there may be other traditions traceable besides 
those of the four worlds, and the later Chinese intercourse treated of by the 
Abbe Pipart (Congress of Orientalists, 1873, p. 187) and by Mr. C. G. Leland. 



. 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



21 



To naturalists, T would particularly point out the names of ani- 
mals common to South America and Central Africa. 

The observance of these facts and of the law resulting there- 
from is of great importance in the whole history of culture, be- 
cause they give us a life for a word or for a myth, as for a race, 
and in many cases the word or the myth is more purely pre- 
served from intermixture than the cranial forms. 

It will thus be seen that the way in which I propose to deal 
with the prehistoric and proto-historic periods is other than the 
methods adopted in the valuable works of Sir John Lubbock, 
Mr. Tylor, Professor Eeinisch, or Professor Frederick Muller, 
and that collaterally and by a parallel path, I follow the investiga- 
tions of Colonel Lane Fox and Mr. J. Evans. If I go beyond 
these, I do not enter on the domain of later philology and my- 
thology, which has been occupied with so much learning and 
ingenuity by Professor Max Muller and others. 

Prehistoric comparative Philology is closely connected 
with comparative mythology, and the two subjects illustrate each 
other. It would, therefore, be well if the term cultural philo- 
logy could be employed. 

In the prehistoric period an idea was represented by three or 
four words, and, again, a word was represented by three or four 
ideas. Thus we find that words or roots are interchangeable, and 
it is necessary to study their morphology, for the purpose of 
understanding the equivalents and real connection of roots in 
various languages. 



Table of Eqidvalents of Boots and Words. 



Above 
Acorn 
Air . . . 
Ant .. 
Arm ... 
Arrow 



Anger 
Axe (see 
Bad ... 

Bat ... 
Bead... 
Bean... 
Bear... 
Beard 
Bee ... 
Before 
Belly 
Bird... 
Fowl 
Bitter 



...Sky, day 

... Stone, bead ? 

. . . Breath, wind, soul, sky 

... Bug, fire ? 

. . . Hand, foot, leg 

... Bone, tooth, horn, bird 

Lance, knife, axe, hat- 
chet (death?) 
... Arrow 
hatchet) 

...Not (negative series), 

Not good [night 

...Bird 

... Egg, bean, pea 
... Bead, pea, egg 
...Teeth 

. . . Mouth, hair, nose 
. . . Honey fly 
... Mouth 
...Womb 

(Negative series) 

Foot, leg, hand, rat 
. Sour, bad 



Black 



Blood 
Boat, ship 
Bone... 



Born... 
Bow .. 
Bowl.. 
Box .. 
Boy .. 
Breath 
Brother 



Bull 



Calf 

Cat (phonetic) 
Chief, see kin 



... (Negative series) 

Not, night 

1? 6? 

Tribal name (Wolof) 
... Head, red, water 
... Fish, box, bowl, plough 
. . . Rib, leg, tooth, horn 

Tree, arrow, spear, 
white ? 
...(negative) Child 
. . . Arrow 
... Boat 
... Boat 

... Child, son, born 
. . . Air, wind, soul 
... Father, uncle 

Sister 

Side 
...Elephant, stag, cow, 

tooth, tusk, horn 
... Oxchild 



22 



Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Child . . . Mouth ? son, born 

Claw Foot, nail 

Cow ... ... (Negative series) 

Woman 

Mother bull, ox woman 

Ewe, goat 
Crow (phonetic) Blackbird, dog 
Cuckoo (phonetic) 
Dart... ... Snake, lance 

Daughter ... Son, born 

Girl, woman, mother 

Cow 

Day Sun, light, sky, above, 5 

Dead ... (Negative series) 

Dog Horse, cat, hog, eagle, 

cow, fish, snake 
Door... ... Mouth, word, speak, 

house 
Dove ...Eagle [tive) 

Dream ...Death, sorcerer (nega- 
Drink ... Eat, speak, go, within 

Dumb ... (Negative) 

Dust... ... Earth, sand 

Eagle ... Wolf, dog, rat, dove 
Ear (Negative series) 

Egg, sun ? 

Hear 
Earth ... Heart 

Eat ... ... Drink, speak, go, within 

Eel Snake, fish 

Egg ... ... Bird, fowl 

Bead, bean, pea, round 

Ear 
Eight ... 4, 2, 5 + 3 (otherhand 3) 

Elephant ... Tooth, bone, bull, stag 
End... ...Tail 

Executioner . (Negative series) 
Ewe (Negative series) 

Cow, woman 
Eye Mouth, face 

Man, I 

Sun 

See, water 
Face... ... Mouth, eye, nose 

Far Long 

Fat Oil, hog? 

Father . . . Mother, brother, man 
Feather ... Tongue (leaf ?) 
Female ... (Negative series) 
Field ... Grain 

Finger ... Teat, head of hand 

Fire Sun, light, day, God? 

animal names 
Fish Snake, dog, bird? sun, 

Ship, boat 

Five Hand, sun 

Flower ... Leaf 

Fly Mouse ? bug, ant 

Foot ... ... Hand, arm, leg, head 

Forest . . . Village 
Four 2, 8, 9, many 



Fowl(see bird) 

Fox Bog, kite 

Girl ... ... Daughter, woman 

Go Eat, drink, run, move 

Goat... ... Ewe (negative series) 

Dog 

God Name, sky, fire 

Gold Sun, snake 

Grain ... Field 

Green ... Black, yellow, grass 

Hair Tooth? Star? 

Head 

Thread, cord, stuff, woo! 
Hand ... Foot, arm, leg, fowl, 5 

Hatchet ... Knife, arrow 
Hawk ...Fox 

He, they ... Man, 3 
Head ... Hair 

Man, chief, king 

Mountain, stone, foot, 
finger 

Hear Ear 

Heart ... Blood, hearth, house, 

earth, hair, liver, lung 
Heaven ... See sky 

Here This, thou 

Hog Dog, goat, horse, fat? 

Hoof Foot 

Hoopooe (phonetic) 
Horn Nose, bone, tooth, ar- 
row, ship, elephant, 
etc. 
Horse ... Dog, hog, snake, sun, 

run 
House ' ... Heart? 

Tree 

Mouth, door 

I, me One 

Iron ... ... Hard 

King Head 

Kite Fox, dog 

Knife . . . Arrow, lance, hatchet 

Lake Biver, house 

Lance ... Tongue, dog 

Arrow, knife, hatchet 

Leaf Flower, tongue 

Leg ... ... Foot, hand, bone 

Light ... Day, fire, sun 

Lion Dog 

Liver ... Lung 

Long... ... Far 

Lord, see king 

Man Father, head, Woman 

Eye, sun 

He, they 

(Tribe name) 
Mare... ... (Negative series) 

Milk ... ... Water, water x 

Mill Stone 

Mole Nose 

Monkey ... Above 



ool 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



23 



Moon 


. Mother, mouth, woman, 


Skull... 


... Shell, headshell 




(negative series) 


Sky ... 


...Above, day, sun, air, 




Sun, star 




mountain 




Skywoman, night eye 


Snake 


... Fish, rat, horse, dog 




Ped, two 


>> 


...Dart 


Mother 


. Father 


}> 


. . . Sun, gold 




Woman, wife 


Snow 


... (Negative series) 




Moon, mouth 


Son ... 


... Child, boy, water 


Mountain .. 


. Head 


Sorcerer 


. . . Dream, death 


Mouse 


. Fly ? rat 


Soul ... 


. . . Breath, wind, ah*, sha- 


Mouth 


. Word, speech, tongue 




dow 




Mother, moon, woman 


Spark 


... Star 




Before 


Speak 


...Mouth, door, before, 




Door 




eat, drink 




Child 


Spear 


... See lance 


Move 


. Go, run 


Spittle 


. . . Mouthwater 


Nail 


. Thorn 


Stag ... 


... Bull, elephant, goat, 


Naked 


. (Negative series) 




horn, etc. 


Name 


. Sun, God (negative ?) 


Star... 


... Sun, moon, spark, ani- 


Nerve 


. String, vein 




mal names 


Nest 


. Egg, womb (negative?) 


Stone 


. . . Pock, tooth, stool 


Night (nega 






Pound, mill 


tive series) 


. Not, night 




Acorn 




Black 




Head 




Kill, executioner 


Stool... 


... Stone 




Female 


String 


... Thread, hair, nerve 


Nine 


. 5 + 4, 4 of other hand 


Sun ... 


... Day, fire, light, sky 


No, not 


. (Negative series) 




Moon, star 




Not, yes 




Skyeye, Skyman 


Nose 


. Horn, beard, mole, head 




Eye, nose, man 


Nut 


. Egg (negative series) 




Animal, dog, snake, 


Oil 


. Fat 




fish 


One 


. I, me 




Gold 




White? black? 




5 


Ostrich 


. Snakebird, birdsnake 




Yes 


Pea ... 


. (See bean) 




Name 


Phallus 


. (See tail) 


Swan 


... Dog 


Plough 


. Ship 


Sword 


. . . Knife, stick 


Pound 


. Stone, mill 


Tail ... 


. . . Phallus, end 


Eat ... 


. Mouse, wolf, eagle, bird, 


Teat ... 


. . . Finger 




snake 


Tear... 


... Eyewater 


Eed ... 


. Blood 


Ten ... 


... Foot, hand 




Two (negative series), 


Tendon 


... See Nerve 




seven ? 


This ... 


...Thou 


Eib ... 


. Bone, side (=woman ?) 


Thorn 


...Nail 


Paver 


. Water, water running, 


Thou... 


...This, that, 2 


Pound 


. Egg [village 


Three 


...Black? He? 


Pun ... 


.Go 


Tiger 


... Dog, sun, fire 


Salt ... 


. Sour 


Tongue 


...Mouth, speech, knife, 


Sand... 


. Dust, earth 




lance, leaf 


See ... 


• Eye 


Tooth 


... Bone, horn, arrow 


Seven 


.5 + 2, two of other hand, 




Elephant, bear 




red ? white ? 


Tree ... 


...Wood, tooth? bone? 


Shadow 


.. Soul, eclipse (negative) 




House, village 


Sheep 


.. Goat, see ewe 


Two ... 


... Eed (negative series) 


Shell... 


.. Skull 


Vein ... 


. . . Nerve 


Ship ... 


. . Fish, plough, horn 


Village 


... Forest, tree, river, lake 


Sister 


.. Brother, daughter 


Water (nega- [village 




Woman-brother, wo- 


tive series). Piver, child, eye, house, 




man-cow ? 


White 


. . . One, seven, bone 


Six ... 


.. 5 + 1, one of other hand 


Wife... 


... Motherman see (woman) 



24 Hyde-Clakke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Wind 


Breath j air, 


soul 




Mouth, yona, moon 


Window- 


Hole 




Womb 


...Belly 


Wing 


Ear 




Wood 


... See tree 


Within 


Eat, drink 




Wool... 


... Hair 


Wolf 


Dog 




Word 


. . . Mouth, speak, door 


Woman(nega- 






Yes ... 


...Light, day, sun, not-no 


tive series) 


. Man 




Yona... 


... Woman, mouth, moon 




Wife, mothergirl 







Among the earliest forms of words and those most widely dis- 
tributed and longest preserved are those for parent, at a later date 
discriminated into father and mother. The complex relations of 
kindred and of terms for it have been well treated by Sir John 
Lubbock. 

The Georgian language presents one example of the inversion 
of the usual distribution in Sumerian and other classes, mama 
being father, and deda, mother. 

In no department, perhaps, is the bearing of equivalent roots 
more strongly seen than in animal names. 

In Yasco-Kolarian many names of animals are allied to Kari, 
dog, and this phenomenon is to be seen throughout. 

This root appears to be allied to Kurritcea Basque, to run. In 
some languages the stork is named from being a runner. In pre- 
historic philology fowl is allied to foot and leg, most likely from 
running. 

One true origin of animal names is perhaps to be found in a 
passage of Herodotus, iii, 16, dwelt upon by Mr. Tylor, "Early 
History of Mankind," p. 235. It runs, "By the Egyptians also 
it hath been held that fire is a living beast, and that it devours 
everything it can seize, and when filled with food it perishes with 
what it has devoured.''' 

Being led to test this I found the word fire to conform with 
dog and tiger in Hunters "New Aryan Dictionary," and farther, 
sun and star to conform. This I ascertained to be a general law 
of prehistoric language. If the word tiger be taken, the forms, 
although conforming also to dog, are mostly sun forms. 

Snake conforms to sun in virtue of the same law, and hence 
its place in nature-worship with the sun. 

As the sun and stars have movement it is to be conceived that 
men were led to assimilate to them the moving animals, beasts, 
birds, and snakes. As fire is allied to the sun, and as fire eats,, 
so too was a conformity found with devouring beasts of prey. 

It is by no means impossible that the idea being so taken the 
phonetic was obtained from crow, which gives the forms ka, 
kawa, kali, koura, klah. 

It may be a question whether the cock or the crow gave name 
to birds, for though Mr. Tylor ("Primitive Culture," i, 207) quotes 
akoka in Ebo, kuku in Zulu, and kukko in Finnish for the cock, 



ProtoMstoric comparative Philology, etc. 25 

yet kaka is a wide name for the crow, and the same form lias 
supplied the word for cuckoo too. 

It is within compass that positive and negative names in the 
form of sun and moon-names may have furnished many epithets, 
the sun for names of male animals, the moon or mother for female 
animals. It is certainly the case for female animals, but on ac- 
count of common names being used for male and female, it is 
difficult to discriminate in all instances. 

The word for tiger in " Hunter's Dictionary" is so commonly a 
sun word, that we may in this way, from verbal mythology, ob- 
tain some notion why the tiger is so mysteriously regarded in 
India. This does not, however, support weather or cloud my- 
thology. 

It is possible that the Egyptian doctrine may be applicable to 
the Akkad cases, where L is an animal characteristic (as in man, 
mulu ; mother, luku ; stag, lulum ; sheep, lu ; some beast, lubat ; 
bull, la ; dog and lion, liku). Sun is, however, lakh ; moon, lid ; 
light, lik ; and eye, lim. There are traces of the same pheno- 
mena in Aymara and in Mexican. This syllable appears to ex- 
ist in Indo-European and Semitic as in lupus, lepus, alopex, leo, 
lagos, lukus ; aleph, elephas, elaphros. 

With the sun idea I should be inclined to connect the fact that 
with the Algonquins (Tylor, " Primitive Culture", i, 302) not only 
all animals belong to the animate gender, but also the sun, moon, 
and stars. The animate gender includes trees and fruits, and, 
besides, the altar, sacrifice stone, the bow, the eagle and feather, 
the kettle, tobacco pipe, drum, and wampum. 

In Genesis ii, 19, etc., it is said of every beast of the field and 
fowl of the air that " whatsoever Adam called every living crea- 
ture that was the name thereof. And Adam gave names to all 
cattle and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field." 

This appears to preserve the tradition, that in the prehistoric 
epoch man did name the beasts and birds, the system pursued 
being still recognisable. 

The names of beasts being founded on the type of the dog, 
names of birds are founded on those of beasts. 

It can readily be understood how the vulture is named after 
the tiger, the hawk after the fox. The ostrich is a snake bird, 
the swan a dog, and swine. 

Insects are also named after beasts. 

In the same way the snake is assimilated to the horse, rat, and 
fish, as it is to the sun. 

The fish is the equivalent of the horse and snake, the eel is a 
snake -fish. 

The bat is a bird. 

Of distinctive names for animals are to be noted, for elephant, 



26 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

tooth; for hear, teeth; for mole, nose; for horse, runner; for 
fowl, leg and foot. 

Other equivalents will he found in the foregoing table of 
equivalents. 

The names of animals are in some cases obtained from combi- 
nation of syllables, expressing life, running, negative, and for 
females, a female or mother, negative. Thus in various permu- 
tations LB, LBN, LN, LNN, EN, BNN, LM, LEM, EM. In 
the Agaw, etc., is BE. 

Mr. Tylor (" Early History," p. 312) quotes Humboldt, ("Yue 
des Cordilleras," pi. xv,)with regard to the Mexicans having re- 
tained the traditions of the elephant as a myth of observation. 
It has appeared to me that the Tasmanian names given to Euro- 
pean animals resemble Sandeh names of African animals, which 
must have been preserved by tradition/ 

A good example of the common distribution of animal names 
will be found in those of the Nile region, Agaw, etc., with GUi- 
arani of Brazil, as Ta-piyra, Taia, etc. 

The connection of the names of Weapons, with their distribu- 
tion, was illustrated by me in a note on the words for arrow, in a 
paper on the Prehistoric Names for Weapons read at the British 
Association in 1873. 

It was this investigation of the connection between archaeology 
and philology, suggested by Colonel Lane Fox's lectures, which 
enabled me to lay a firmer basis for the investigation of the 
connections between India and Africa and between the new 
world and the old, because it became evident that these were 
prehistoric, and connected with successive migrations. 

The names for weapons will of course vary in neighbouring 
tribes and be unequally distributed, and more particularly be- 
cause the names of weapons are sometimes taken from conquer- 
ing races. 

It appears to me that the names BK, BN, and KN are formed 
on negative roots, as the word to kill or die, expressive of the 
characteristic of a weapon of death. 

I shall now give some examples of the distribution of roots 
for arrow or dart, knife, sword, axe or hatchet, and spear or 
lance. 

Eoot BK. 

Asia. Africa. South America. 

Arrow Gyarung — kipi ... Houssa — kebia ... Itenes — kivo 
Kari Naga — takaba 
Mru or Toung of Bur- 
in ah — quai 

Knife. Houssa — takobi ... Skwali — khawughkhan 

Fulah— kafahi ... Watlala 

Wolof— paka ... (Chinook) — khawukhe 
Pujuni — kiai 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 27 

Asia. Africa. South America. 

Sword Houssa — takobi 

Fulah — kafahi 
Spear . Batta — kubi 

A curious point is in the parallel forms. 

India — kipi ... ... Houssa — kebia 

takaba . . . takobi 

Eoot BN. 

Arrow Burmese — pen ... Mandingo — benyo 

Malay... Bambarra — bien 

Javanese — pana ... Ashantee — eben 

Sanskrit — banah 
Knife . Khond — penju 

Telugu — banamu 
Spear . Mandingo — benyo 

Boot KN. 

Arrow Tharu — khando ... Fanti — egandua 

Madi — -kani 

Chentsu — kondu 

Tamil — kanei 

Boot DM. 

Arrow Sontali— jhampa Keracares — tomete 

Thaksya — tume 
Tamil — ambu 
Spear . Mandingo — tambu 

Bambarra — tama 
Ashantee — kami 
Axe ... Ashantee — ekuma 

The bead in the Wolof and Vasco-Kolarian is related to egg, 
pea, bean. Thus it would appear as if beads were strung eggs 
and round seeds of plants. It may be that the pea and bean, being- 
eatable, are named after egg and fowl, and that the bean was 
consequently endowed with various mythological attributes. 

In Basque, the names for pea, bean, and acorn appear to be 
related to stone. 

Mill was related to stone and rub. 

Several names of weapons appear to be related to snake and 
dog, as if running swiftly, and endowed with life, others, as said, 
to death. 

The phenomena of the pronouns of a class are remarkable. In 
the early epochs they are seldom generally or evenly distributed. 
The first pronoun singular may be uniform, but even this is not 
a rule. The second and third persons are frequently inter- 
changed. 

It is, however, on pronominal and grammatical forms that 
many philologists most insist as a test of affinity. 

A curious example of disturbance is found in Akkad and 
Georgian. Each has double plurals for nouns, for these in 
Georgian hi and ni are in Akkad the third personal pronoun. 

The cause of this phenomenon is to be found, and is in fact 



28 



Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



generally indicated in that excellent treatise on gesture lan- 
guage, which forms a chapter of the " Early History of Man- 
kind." It is because gesture was used to determine the word 
used for a person as a pronoun. 

The use of determinatives for the distinction of classes of 
objects is inherent in the prehistoric languages. It is particu- 
larly applied to the members of the body, and sometimes to 
animals. 

Its application will be sufficiently exhibited by its copious 
forms in Basque. 

Comparative philology. — Prehistoric determinative or distinctive 

particles. 





Basque. 




Basque. 


Head 


.. bu 


Forehead ... 


be 


Hair 


.. bi 


Beard 


bi 


Eye 


.. be, bel 


Back 


bi 


Eyebrow 


.. be, buff, bier 


Breast 


bul 


Ear 


.. be 


Fowl 


... be 


Head 


.. bi 


Cow 


be? 


Arm 


.. be 


Grass (hair) 


be, bel 


Knee 


.. be 


Crow 


be 


Elbow 


.. be 


Mare 


be 


Nail finger 


.. be 


Lungs 


bul 


Thumb 


.. be, ber 


Tail 


bu 



The Coptic definite articles are : — Masculine, P-, Pi- ; femi- 
nine, T-, Tii-, Te- ; plural, Ne-, Nen-. These are probably 
derived from the older determinatives : — Yasco-Kolarian B-, 
Guarana-Agaw, T-, Te. The common prehistoric determinative: — 
N-, M-. 

Animal members are marked out by — North America : — 
Blackibot, Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, Tuscarora, Cahuilo. 

What Mr. Tylor ("Primitive Culture," i, 220), has pointed 
out with regard to the differencing of distance by sounds, in the 
case of pronouns and adverbs, and what Professor Max Miiller, 
expounding various authorities, has shown with regard to gender, 
are only applications of a general law. 

It is by differencing by vowels or consonants that in the pre- 
historic languages distinctions are drawn between the meanings 
of the same roots, and this is well seen in the way in which an 
animal name for dog is made distinctive for various animals. 

This law of differencing has not received the attention it 
deserves. It is the true cause of some of the phenomena which 
have been attributed to normal changes of sounds, to phonetic 
laws, to Grimm's law in particular, and to phonetic decay, and 
as to which doctrines, Professor Max Miiller has begun to 
show caution and to enforce it. 

It is in what I term the Negative Series that one of the lead- 
ing laws of prehistoric philology and mythology is to be found. 






Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 29 

Under this, the negative no or not is the equivalent of night 
and black (Niger). 

It is also the equivalent of woman, as the'negative, man being 
treated as the positive. So all female names become negative, 
as wife, Eve, ewe, hound (=bitch), she-goat, cow, mare, etc. 

[In another relation, woman becomes the equivalent of the 
Yona and mouth, and by her periodicity, resembling that of the 
moon, the equivalent of that body.] 

Death, kill, executioner, have negative relations. 

So have egg and nit, and secondarily pea, bean, and nut (as 
resembling an egg). Ear and head appear to be negative. 

Cloud is a negative, and that is why, in modern verbal mytho- 
logy or solar myths, it is found to conform with cow, as it may 
conform with any negative or female negative. Xephele, in 
mythology, is one of the forms of Khaveh or Eve. 

Shadow is a negative, and in some cases equivalent to soul 
and night. 

In Guarani, there is an ingenious distinction between the soul 
of the living and the dead ; and so of a head, bone, skin. 

The soul of the dead man is supposed in many countries to 
lodge in birds. 

This may be one ground why the bird is negative as bearing 
the soul of the dead. 

Blood is a negative apparently as related to death. 

Hence red is a negative, and some curious mythological and 
archaeological conditions arise, for red is likewise the equivalent 
of the number two. 

Dr. Zerffy informs me that red was the second colour in 
various positions, as on dice, and on temple terraces, but this 
requires closer investigation. 

Mr. Park Harrison and Mr. Jeremiah, jun., have observed the 
use of red as a colour widely prevalent in the regions now under 
consideration for the purposes of this investigation. 

The virtue of red as a preservative against the evil eye is 
referred to in Walter K. Kelly's " Curiosities of Indo-European 
Traditions and Folk-lore" (p. 147). In Buchan, Aberdeenshire, 
the housewives tie a piece of red worsted round their cows' tails 
before turning them out to grass for the first time in spring. It 
is, however, better shown in Germany (p. 229), where herdsmen 
lay a woman's red apron, or a broad axe covered with a woman's 
red stocking, before the threshold of the cow-house, and make 
the animals step over it. The bringing together of woman, cow, 
and red is noteworthy. 

The lady-bird seems to hold its place in folk-lore as being red 
(p. 95). It is held unlucky to kill a lady-bird in Germany, 
as the sun would not shine the next day. 



30 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

It is possible that the robin redbreast owes his mythical place 
to the same characteristic, and it is also unlucky to kill him. 

The woodpecker has a red head or mutch (p. 86) and a black 
body. 

Bad is negative, as is naked. 

Sleep and dream are negatives, as belonging to the night series. 

Salt is negative. 

Water in some senses is a negative, and appears to be con- 
nected with woman. 

Night was the negative of day on the closing of the eye, and 
it had its own world of darkness, with its night sun, its sleep 
and its dreams. It was the domain of shadows and the ultimate 
refuge of the soul. Its mythological relations in this respect 
will best be studied in the treatment of animism by Mr. Tylor. 

There are few prehistoric, protohistoric, or historic languages 
which do not display the Negative Series. Among such may 
be named : — Wolof, Agaw, Vasco-Kolarian (very marked), 
Ugrian, Egyptian, Sumerian (very marked), Dravidian, Semitic 
(not strongly marked), Aryan (very marked). 

For Aryan, a popular illustration is afforded by Not, Night, 
Nut, Nit, Naked, Nest, Snow, Eve, Ewe, Egg, Wife, Cow, Nox, 
Nix, Nex, Nux, Nee, Non, Nudus, Nidus, Nodus, Niger, Nubes, 
Ovis, Ovum, Avis, Uva, Caput, Auris. 

The way in which the negative roots are distributed among 
the various branches of a class is peculiar and affords a dis- 
tinction. 

Thus, Latin uses N largely, and (KB) sparingly; Greek, 
M, largely, and KE or KL sparingly. Thus Aymara uses 
P, K, H; Mon uses P (sparingly), K, H (sparingly) and T. 

In reality the dissylables are chiefly the same, for the (ovum, 
oon( is nothing but the K, B and KB of the Vasco-Kolarian, and 
Sumerian Gaba, Paka, and the KE (Karua, Auris, etc.) that of 
the Sumerian Eaka. 

The words for woman as Khaveh, Eve, Agave, Hebe, Nephele, 
Wife, have descended through ages as the formula for verbal 
mythology, and hence figure so largely in the earliest records of 
Genesis, in the traditions of the Eastern Mediterranean, and 
among the Aryans. 

A sufficient example will be afforded by the following : — 







NEGATIVE SEEIES 










Aymara. 




Mon of Pegu 


Moon 


ab 


paksi 


b 


khatu 


Ked 


ab 


pako 


ab 


hpakit 


Two 


a 


pa, paya 


a 


pa 


Ear 


ab 


(paoki) 


b 


khato 


Head 


ab 


phekai 


b 


katau 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 31 



NEGATIVE SEEIES— continued. 
Aymara. 



Night 


be 


Eiver 


c 


No, not 


c 


Salt 


c 


Bad 




Bitter 


c 





Mon of Peg 


u. 


haipu 
hahuiri 


b 
a 


khatar 
Pi 


hani 


c 


ha 


hayu 


a 

be 


po 

hakha 


haru 


b 


katan 


chamaka ? 


b 


katsau 



Black b ? 

The chief negative monosyllabic particles are M (Ma) and 
N (Na, No), and I differ from Mr. Tylor ("Primitive Culture/' 
i, 19) as to their origin being interjectional ; and from De Brosses, 
vol. i, p. 203; and Wedgewood, quoted by Tylor, as to N being 
a nasal interjection of doubt or dissent. 

It appears reasonable to regard them under the new view as 
being in relation to the Ma or Na forms for mother, when these 
had been so distributed and applied. Mother being related to 
woman, stands in a negative condition. 

The dissyllable form is largely developed with the negative. 

It should be mentioned that a negative is not necessarily a 
prefix or suffix, but in prehistoric grammar may be intercalated, 
as in Gondi (Khond), Vasco-Kolarian, and Sumerian Akkad. 

It is on this principle, probably, that in many languages we 
employ a middle negative, with negative verbs, as in Akkad, 
Turkish, etc., and with auxiliaries in our own and many modern 
languages. 

In Chinese, Pe, which is elsewhere negative and black, means 
white ; and it is possible that in some cases negatives have been 
made positives to propitiate a good omen. 

Gender is closely connected with the negative relations. 

Mr. Tylor has very well said (" Primitive Culture," i, 301) 
that " the distinction of grammatical gender is a process inti- 
mately connected with the formation of myths." In addition to 
the explanations he has given, account should be taken of the 
effect of positive and negative ideas in gender. 

I concur with him that the gender beyond the masculine and 
feminine is relatively modern, but this in many cases belongs to 
the trinary epoch, and is not in its origin a neuter gender, but 
a common gender. 

It is possible that " the high caste or major gender," of Dravi- 
dian, including gods and men (Caldwell, Comp. Grammar, p. 172, 
quoted as above), may be connected with the same phenomena, 
because the common gender would be that of the chief god. 

It is a matter of great question whether, so far as the pre- 
historic epoch is concerned, the supposed solar and lunar mytho- 
logy can be effectually applied as an exponent, any more than it 
can under proper considerations to modern conditions. The 



32 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

verbal and mythological relation, in the prehistoric epoch, of 
women to the moon, for instance, is not properly a part of the 
modern meteorological mythology. 

Upon the subject of numerals, there is not the space to en- 
large. If numerals are not always characteristic, because they 
are propagated and borrowed as instruments of culture, they are 
sometimes very valuable in that respect, as in the case of Akkad, 
Mon, and Peruvian. There is also much to be investigated as to 
their structure, other than in the course of the prevalent doctrines. 

It has long since been pointed out that the word for man 
largely constitutes the tribal name. Thus we have it in Aro, 
Ho, Aino, Mru, Minipo, Kuri, Kami, Kumi, Agoo, Singpho. 

Black is the meaning of Wolof and Landoma. 

Sun appears to be the name for Batta, Apach, Shan, Hayu, 
Fulah. 

Many tribal names are widely distributed. The Mundara and 
others of Central India appear to be repeated in Central Africa. 

The following is a list of some common names : 

Asia. Akusk, Kush. Africa. 

Asia ... ... Akkaioi Om-agua,[etc. ... South America 



Africa... 


. . Agaw 








Asia ... 


.. Sumer (Akkad) 




. Aymara ... 


... South America 


,, 


.. Khmer Kemer 


(Cam 


- 






bodia 




. Quichua... 


... South America 


,, ... • 


.. Kissii (Babylonia) .. 


. Quiche? ... 


... Central America 


Africa... 


.. Batta ... 




.Batta 


... Australasia (Sumatra) 


India ... 


.Bodo 




. Abatia ? . . . 


. . . West Africa 


,, 


. Garo 




. Yangaro... 


... North Africa 


East Nepaul . 


. Magar 




. Magyar . . . 


... Europe 


East Nepaul . 


.Khun 




. Hun 


... Europe 



The comparative mythology requires to be carefully studied 
on these facts and principles. The distribution of the names for 
sun, moon, and stars present peculiarities, some of which can be 
recognised in the old world. 

The same type sometimes supplies sun, fire, and day. 

A form for moon, largely found in North America, is night 
sun. 

It is from this practice that we may account for the same word 
occasionally figuring for sun and moon without a distinctive. 
The male moon had perhaps a relation to the moon appearing 
during the day. 

That eye has been used for sun, as in Indo-China and Austra- 
lasia we find by Algonkin, Quichua, and Aymara, 

Among the Salivi of the Orinoco we find for sun, sky-man; and 
among the Betoi of the Orinoco for sun, sky-man, and for moon, 
sky-woman. 

Sky-man is possibly found in the Serpa of Thibet in the Sing- 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 33 

pho, Koreng, Khoibu, Mareng and Laos of the Burmese pen- 
insula. 

Having referred to the connection between the new world and 
the old, which is established by that great department of culture, 
speech, it would be desirable to deal with race, but that must be 
left for further examination. Certainly the Esquimaux must be 
acknowledged, and there are many who will accept the principle 
of Humboldt that the Mongol type may be recognised in Ame- 
rica. To me it appears that in the south, and also in the north, 
types may be seen that are common to Indo-China, India, and 
Africa, My study, however, is for the time being that of cul- 
ture, and not that of the body. 

The hair, so much regarded by some as a distinctive, has in 
America old world representatives. 

With regard to skulls I can offer no opinion. That must be 
left to Professor Busk and his colleagues. At the same time, in 
this and in other inquiries we shall very probably find a diffi- 
culty the distinguished president of the Anthropological Insti- 
tute has pointed out, and which now impedes the progress of 
craniology, and that is the want of distinctive characters in 
skulls of mixed races. In this we shall, however, most likely be 
ultimately assisted by the progress of other departments of an- 
thropology. At present, even the finding together of long and 
short skulls affords little valuable material for determination. 

The compression of skulls is, as Professor Busk remarks, a phe- 
nomenon to be observed around the shores of South America, but 
it is worth noting that it occurred in Peru and also in the hill 
parts of Pegu. (Prichard on "Man," iv, 537.) 

The whole subject of skull deformities, in reference to Ame- 
rica, will be found in Daniel Wilson's " Prehistoric Man," second 
edition, p. 491, and that of Peru in a paper by him in " Nature," 
May 2 1st j 1874, and which was a subject of controversy. It 
thence appears that such deformities are not peculiar to Ame- 
rica, nor characteristic thereof, neither are they characteristic 
of the Agaw or Sumerian races, but they are worth studying, 
as they may ultimately furnish evidence. 

Mr. Park Harrison refers to the extension of circumcision to 
Easter Island and Peru. It is distinctly observable in sculp- 
tures from Easter Island. Of its eastern extension it is unne- 
cessary to speak. 

Circumcision may possibly have some connection with the 
myth, recorded by Mr. Tylor ("Primitive Culture," i, 334), that 
in Brazil after a couple have been married, the father or father- 
in-law cuts a wooden stick with a sharp flint, imagining that by 
this ceremony he cuts off the tails of any future grandchildren, 



34 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

so that they may be born tailless. It will be observed that a 
circumcising instrument is used, a sharp flint. 

Mr. J. Park Harrison, who, as stated, has devoted much at- 
tention to the various ethnological phenomena connecting the 
west and the east, has treated among others of the artificial en- 
largement of the earlobe among various nations, in the Journal 
of the Anthropological Institute, July and October, 1872, p. 190. 
Cases of this kind are prominent enough among the Indo- 
Chinese. 

Consul Hutchinson ("Peru," vol. i, p. 138 and 139) pointedly 
refers to an example in a little wooden idol from the Cerro del 
Oro, and he found others in the museum at Lima (vol. i, p. 321). 
In Mr. John L. Stephens' " Central America", vol. i, examples 
maybe found at pages 139, 143, 149, 150, 152, 153, and 158. 
David Forbes refers (p. 41) to the love for great ear ornaments 
among the Aymaras. It is stated that the Incas only granted 
permission to indulge in enlarged ear-lobes as a privilege to 
the Aymaras a long time after their annexation to the empire. 

The question of mound monuments is one that must be 
passed over as one not coming into the epoch we are now en- 
gaged with. 

In Polynesia the remains of massive stone buildings have been 
found in Tongatabu, Easter Island, Eota, Tinian, Valan, and 
elsewhere (Wilson's " Prehistoric Man," p. 109). To these may 
be added Java, Pegu, Cambodia, Peru, Mexico, and Yucatan. 

Among the facts adduced by Mr. Park Harrison for the migra- 
tion from east to west through Australasia he refers to colossal 
heads in the east and in Easter Island. Colossal heads will 
be found in Stephens' "Central America, Chiapas, and Yuca- 
tan, vol. i, p. 139, 143, 149, 150, 152, 153 and 328. They 
have been identified in Babylonia, Cambodia, Easter Island, 
and Peru. 

M. Perrot, under the name of Ly do-Phrygian, and myself, un- 
der the name of Ly do- Assyrian, have pointed out the westerly 
extension of the monuments in Asia Minor, including the Mobe 
near Magnesia ad Mceandrum and the Pseudo Sesostris, near 
Nymphse in the Smyrna district. To this may be added the 
colossal head 'from the outskirts of Smyrna, found by Mr. F. 
Spiegelthal, in 1865, and identified by me and Drought to the Bri- 
tish Museum by Mr. G-. Dennis. The name of Ly do -Akkadian 
is perhaps better for these monuments. 

The use of enormous blocks of admirably squared stone, with- 
out cement, is a feature common to both continents and deserv- 
ing of investigation, as well as the mode in which such blocks 
were quarried and transported. In South America there were 
no beasts of burthen available. The employment of bricks and 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 35 

cement, and generally the adoption of the building arts are also 
worthy of careful examination. 

Stephens, in his "Yucatan," vol. i, p. 134, gives a very re- 
markable engraving of a capital of a column at Uxmal, of old 
world character. 

At Uxmal there are buildings constructed on terraces and 
mounds, as there were at Babylon (i, 135). This is worth ob- 
serving for further comment. 

Burial towers are to be recognised in Syria, Persia, India, 
Siam, and Peru. 

The knowledge of bronze, goldsmith's work, silver work, and 
other metallurgy has not passed unobserved by writers. Gold 
dentistry has been recognised in Peru and Egypt (Tylor, "Early 
History of Mankind," p. 175). 

The employment of bronze in America presents no difficulty 
under the acceptation of a Sumerian settlement. If the Agaws 
did not become acquainted with the large tin supplies of Ma- 
lacca the East Sumerians did, as they were with the working of 
gold and silver. Hence they readily introduced these arts into 
America, or rather improved them, because the mound builders 
were acquainted with copper and bronze working. 

Although the Sumerians, as the topographical nomenclature 
shows, were acquainted with tin in Britain before the Phoeni- 
cians, it is probable Malacca, and not Britain, was the great seat 
of the early supply of tin. 

Consul Hutchinson ("Peru/' ii, 266) institutes a justifiable 
comparison between the masonry and pottery of ancient Peru, 
observed by himself, and the prehistoric discoveries of Dr. 
Schliemann in the Troad. In fact, if my views are correct of the 
connection of the Lydians, Phrygians, and Carians of Asia Minor, 
with the Etruscans and the Sumerians, then there would be a 
positive identification of epoch and class between the Troad and 
Peru. 

In Peru, drinking cups and other articles were buried with 
the dead, as in Etruria, etc. The Peruvian cups were supposed 
to be used for drinking at the funerals (Eorbes, 49). 

The woven fabrics are also to be noted in connection with 
Peru and the country of the Thinas or Cambodia. 

The quipu or knotted cord, as a record, is found in Peru, Mex- 
ico, Hawaii, Polynesia, the Eastern Archipelago, and China 
(Prichard, iv, 466 ; Tylor, "Early History of Mankind, pp. 156, 
160). 

The scape llama referred to by David Forbes (p. 45) may be 
compared with the scape goat of the east. 

Sacrifices of men to the gods were used by the earlier races, as 
the Dahomans, but it is to be noted that they were a practice 

D 



36 Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

also of the worship of Baal, in Peru and in Mexico (Wilson, 
"Prehistoric Man," pp. 89, 91, 290), as also in the east. 
^ Von Humboldt long since noticed the connection of the Mex- 
ican calendar with the Asiatic and deduced the Asiatic origin of 
the civilization (see also E. B. Tylor, "Anahuac," 241). The 
Yucatan calendar is allied to the Mexican. The subject of the 
calendars and inscriptions, together with Peruvian and Central 
American languages has long occupied the Chevalier Bollaert, 
the author of the Peruvian antiquities and of many memoirs, 
particularly on the Maya alphabet. 

The half month in the early Maya or Yucatan calendar con- 
sisted of thirteen days (Stephens' "Yucatan", i, 439). The Siam- 
ese likewise use as an essential part of a date a half month. 
This now consists of fourteen days. 

The dates in Siamese are arranged on a cross ( + ) . In Yu- 
catan, part of the cycle was placed on a wheel divided into four, 
practically N, E, W, and S. The two systems show a resem- 
blance, and the cross may represent the spokes of a wheel. 
The Yucatan calendar, which was the same as the Mexican, 
has lucky and unlucky days, still a common system in the east. 
The cross has been found by Dr. Schlemann in the Troad. The 
square cross is common among the Aymaras (Forbes, 39), and 
was observed by Stephens in Central America. 

The red hand seen in the monuments of Yucatan (Stevens) 
Bollaert says he has seen as far south as Arica in Peru (" An- 
thropology of the New World," 114). 

Chewing vegetable substances, so well known in the east, takes 
place in Peru with coca. David Forbes also observes that 
besides eating clay the Aymaras and Quichuas mix ashes 
of wood on plants with the coca leaf, and that this is like the 
Asiatic practice of adding lime to the betel nut, being in both 
cases for the purpose of setting free the vegetable alkaloid 
of the plant (p. 59). The coca was anciently offered on 
the altar of the gods, and now on the altar of the Virgin. 

The Honourable Mr. Clay points out that the umbrella was a 
mark of dignity among the Peruvians, as it was in Babylonia, 
and is still in the Indo-Chinese countries. 



PAET II. 

The Connection of Culture in Asia and America. 

The affinities of grammar between the new world and the old, 
though dealt with by various writers, as in the "Mithridates," 
were only scientifically treated by a few, as by Humboldt, the 
Bev. Ptichard Garnett, and Dr. Daniel Wilson ("Prehistoric 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 37 

Man," p. 594). Characters common to the Polynesian had been 
recognised, but Mr. Garnet pointed out that besides these others 
were to be found common to the languages of the Dekkan in 
India. 

On the other hand, Dr. Oscar Peschel, in his " Volkerkunde," 
1874, p. 472, still maintains that the culture of Peru and Mexico 
was indigenous. 

Mr. Tylor also ("Early History of Mankind," p. 209) says 
" No certain proof of connection or intercourse of any kind be- 
tween Mexico and Peru seems as yet to have been made out/' 
This expresses the state of prevalent opinion, and although the 
materials for linguistic investigation are abundantly displayed in 
Dr. Latham's valuable "Elements of Comparative Philology/' 
such opinion has been little contested. In fact, although the 
languages are allied, yet that alliance has to be demonstrated 
from the outside, and until the disinterment and decipherment 
of the Sumerian or Akkad inscriptions, it was almost impos- 
sible to be proved. 

The Aymara and Quichua languages of Peru, the Aztek of 
Mexico., and the Maya of Yucatan, are all allied with the Indo- 
Chinese, and thereby with the Akkad as Sumerian. Even to 
the Negative Series and numerals the points of resemblance are 
remarkable. Some of these resemblances between Akkad and 
Quichua had, on the perusal of M. Lenorment's works, struck 
Senor de la Eosa, a distinguished Peruvian scholar, and on the 
reading of this paper at the Anthropological Institute he referred 
to several examples lying on the surface. He also referred to 
resemblances between Quichua and Semitic and Aryan. These 
I treated as resulting from the influence of Sumerian and the 
older languages, as Semitic and Sanskrit. 

In Peru and Bolivia the chief languages now are the Quichua 
or Inca, and the Aymara. 

Of the Aymaea a copious and valuable memoir was, on 21st 
June, 1870, communicated to the Ethnological Society (parent 
of the Anthropological Institute) by David Forbes, F.R.S., and 
this constitutes a text-book. 

The language of the Aymaras is spoken in southern Peru and 
northern Bolivia. They were conquered by the Incas. The 
Quichua is spoken in northern Peru and southern Bolivia. 

The Aymaras claim to have been a great people before the 
Inca conquest (1100), perhaps beyond any South American 
people. Buiiis of grand palaces and temples remain at Tiahua- 
naca on the south of Lake Titicaca (Forbes). Tiahuanaca was 
the capital of the Aymara land. The conquest of it was com- 
pleted in 1289, but was followed by serious revolts. 

Forbes says, too, (p. 4) that, according to Indian traditions 



38 



Hyde-Clakke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



from Aymara as well as Quichua sources, the Aymaras, even 
before the time of the first Inca, Manco — Capac (1021-1062) — 
possessed a degree of civilisation higher than that of the Incas 
themselves. Consul Hutchinson maintained before the Institute 
a like doctrine as to the Chimoos. 

The Aymara is related to the Quichua, which was the govern- 
mental language of Peru under the Incas. Among people 
devoted to the worship of the Sun it might be expected the 
word for Sun would be remarkable, but so it is only in one 
respect, that the word Inti is the word for Eye in the African 
Danakil. It is one canon in prehistoric philology that Eye 
and Sun are permutable, because the Sun was called the Sky- 
eye. 

The Aymara, etc., resemblances to Danakil, Shiho, and Adaiel 
of North-east Africa are thus shown : — 





Peru. 




Danakil, etc 


Eye... 


.. naira — Aymara 


... Sun... 


... aero 


Sun... 


.. inti „ 


... Eye... 


... inti 


Head 


.. uma, homa „ 


... Head 


... ammo 


Nose 


.. cenca, cinga Q 


... Nose 


..'. san 


Ear ... 


... paoki 


... Ear ... 


... okua 


Star . . . 


... silla 


... Moon 


... alsa 


Day... 


.. uru ... 


... Day... 


... erra 



The eye of the Aymara, says Forbes (p. 14), has the central 
line very slightly inclined inwards, not nearly so much as in 
the Mongol, yet not altogether horizontal as in many of the 
Chinese. An approximation to this form of eye is observable 
among the Indo-Chinese, but then it must be noted that it is 
also found among the Guaranis of Brazil. 

Forbes (p. 12) says, that " the figure given in e Smith's Natural 
History of the Human Species ' of an Indian of the Otto tribe in 
North America is almost an exact likeness of Conduri, an old 
Aymara man some time in my service." 

Although Tschudi attributes the elongated skulls to the 
Incas, it was, as Forbes points out (p. 13), to the Aymaras 
that belonged the skulls found near Lake Titicaca. The Ay- 
mara language is nearest to the Peguan, and it is in Arakan, near 
the Peguan area, that among hill tribes the system of flatten- 
ing the skull is now practised. (Prichard on " Man/' Vol. iv. p. 
537). 

With regard to the hair of the Aymaras, it is extremely 
abundant and long in the man as well as the woman. It is 
of a deep black-brown or black colour, perfectly straight, with- 
out any attempt to curl (Forbes, p. 14). It is noticeable that 
the men wear their hair drawn backwards over their heads, 
and plaited into a long pigtail. This practice corresponds with 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 39 

that of Asia. Forbes notes that the women have two pigtails. 
This appears recognisable on Etruscan and some archaic monu- 
ments of the west. The men are proud of their pigtails, and 
Forbes believes introduce false hair. This is done in China. 
Cutting off the pigtail is as there the severest punishment 
(p. 44). 

The Aymara and Quichua Indians are noted for their cha- 
racter of submission to authority, enabling them to be used 
for the foundation of a great empire, and this is a feature of 
the Indo-Chinese people. 

The Aymara area has been supposed to be limited to that 
now occupied, but it is to be observed that the names found 
in the neighbourhood of Lake Titicaca are much better deve- 
loped in New Granada. It is therefore evident that the 
Aymara, or perhaps pre-Aymara, occupation must have ex- 
tended so far north. Mr. Clements Markham considers that the 
Inca empire never reached so far northward, and Mr. Forbes 
was not aware of such an extension of the Aymara as must 
now be allowed for. 

Aymara is possibly the equivalent of Kemer or Khmer, the 
name of the Cambodians, and of the Sumer — the name of the 
people connected with Accad. 

Quichua in Peru and Quiche" in Mexico may represent the 
Kissii or Cissii near Babylon ; and these may be connected with 
Cush and Akush. Of the Quichua or Inca language and people 
it is not necessary to say so much, as they are more familiarly 
known, and have been and will be incidentally referred to. 

To the Quichua language Mr. Clements Markham has devoted 
himself, and produced a grammar and dictionary which have 
been of very great service in these investigations. I have also 
employed the Arte of Torres Eubio, on which his grammar is 
founded. This work of Mr. Markham's is likely to be of more 
importance even than he anticipated now that Quichua and 
Aymara must be studied for the comparative grammar of 
Akkad. Senor de la Eosa and Seiior Pacheco are engaged on 
new Quichua Grammars. 

Consul Hutchinson, who has given so much labour to the 
prehistoric archeology of Peru, places the Chimoos before the 
Quichuas in Peru ; but I have no specimen of the language. 

The Aztek culture of Mexico, as Humboldt well saw, was 
derived from the old world, as was its language, which is to be 
classed with Sumerian, but intermediate between Aymara and 
Otomi. 

The Otomi, Cora, and Tarahumars, with perhaps the Huastcca, 
constitute a class under Sumerian influence, but allied with the 
Adighe or Circassian, which likewise exhibits Sumerian influ- 



40 Hyde-Ciarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

ence, and lias a remarkable but distant resemblance with Etrus- 
can. 

In the Circassian I had long since traced what are called 
North American characteristics, and others I found in the 
Georgian, but the cause was unknown to me till of late. A 
considerable influence must have been exerted by the Agaw and 
Otomi migrations on the Indian languages of North America. 

The presence of the Circassian-Otomi has to be accounted for. 
The higher Sumerians are marked as city-building people, but 
the Circassian in the Caucasus is what the Otomi is in Mexico. 
The Otomis must have preceded the Sumerians in South America 
or been driven forward by them, as the Agaw-Guarani were into 
Brazil. The Otomis may have had connections or dealings with 
the monument-building races of North America. At a later 
date, on the Sumerian kingdoms in Mexico becoming weaker, 
they returned and invaded Mexico. 

Dr. Latham (" Opuscula, Essays," 1860, p. 395) gives "the 
result of a very hurried collation,''' for the Otomi, " said to be 
" with the languages akin to the Chinese en masse" (p. 397), and 
for the Maya (p. 398). The latter list is chiefly of Aztek words. 
He makes no remarks, but the tables show many affinities 
with Tonkin and Cochin-Chinese. Had Dr. Latham followed 
this up he might probably have obtained the clue to the 
relation of the Mexican languages, though he might have 
been baffled, as some of the affinities can only be illustrated 
by bringing together the Quichua and Aymara as members 
of the group, and the Akkad then undeciphered. It is, in fact, 
now a part of the evidence that Humboldt, Garnett, Latham, 
etc., are found to have contributed material for the true solution. 

The history of Mexico is supplied from accessible sources. 
Its best known language is the Aztek. On the preceding Toltek 
I can throw no light. The monuments and culture of Mexico 
may, after the reference already made to them, be passed 
over. Suffice it to say, the monuments are of great dimensions 
and highly decorated. 

Yucatan possesses similar remains described by J. L. Stephens. 
The Maya, a language formerly cultivated, comes distinctly with- 
in the Sumerian class. 

Jn "Incidents of Travel," by J. L. Stephens, in Central 
America, Chiapas and Yucatan, in vol. ii, are hieroglyphics, 
which are arranged in rows, and appear to present some of 
the principles of the cuneiform or hieratic, as 1 1 1 |_l MJ IJJJ 

LI II 

The same is to be observed at Palenque, ii, 342 and 424. 
These latter present even more resemblance to the Hamath 



Protohistorlc comparative Philology, etc. 41 

inscriptions, as Q ©, also the extended arm (see also Hissarlik 
and Easter Island) is worth further examination. 

The square hieroglyphics, or rather squares of hieroglyphics, 
found in Central America, are most probably only a modification 
of the row or column of hieroglyphics in the Yucatan and 
Hamath, and which has a representative in hieratic cuneiform. 
The carvings on the rocks at the Yonan Pass, in Peru, 
engraved by Consul T. J. Hutchinson ("Peru," ii, 174, 176), are 
deserving of study. Some of the characters are ideographs, but 
some likewise present a resemblance to Hamath and other cha- 
racters ; and Easter Island inscriptions deserve attention. 

The question may be incidentally considered whether the 
Sumerian population of Indo-China was supplied from Babylonia 
or the common centre in High Asia. In my view it was 
from the common centre, because although, there are great 
affinities between Sumerian or Akkad and its eastern analogues, 
yet there are greater affinities between these, and there are 
common points of dissimilarity from Sumerian. There were 
most probably two migrations of Sumerian in succession to 
the Agaw. One embraced the Akkad, Mon, Cambodian, Ay- 
mara, and Maya (and Toltec ?). The other, the Georgian, Etrus- 
can, Siamese, Quichua, and Aztek. The earliest may, how- 
ever, have been the Circassian Otomi. 

Mr. Park Harrison strongly maintains that civilisation 
must have had a passage from the Old World to Peru by 
Easter Island, and he has brought the subject before the An- 
thropological Institute and the British Association. The pheno- 
mena here described of the distribution of population in South 
America greatly favour this view. There were, however, looking 
to geographical circumstances, probably two routes by the 
northern and southern islands and currents, and these may have 
effected the collocation of the various populations. 

Proceeding onwards, Indo-China, or the southern districts of 
the further peninsula beyond India, may be treated as one 
linguistic area. They include Pegu in the west, Siam in the 
middle, and Cambodia in the east. This region was known 
to the ancients as being held by populations in a state of 
advancement. 

Pegu is the country at the mouth of the Irawaddy, and was 
formerly independent, but fell under the dominion of the Bur- 
mese empire. In 1852, the province, with the towns of Pegu, 
Prome, and Eangoon was taken by the English. The people 
call themselves Mon, but are called Talain by the Burmese. 
The language is a most valuable member of the Sumerian for 
illustration. There are large ruins. 

Siam lies in the middle of India, beyond the Ganges, and 
is the seat of a great and settled empire. The Siamese people 



42 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

and language are, however, of less importance to us in this 
inquiry at this period than are the others. 

Kambodia, or Camboja (Kan-phu-cha, Chinese), is the western 
part of Annam or Cochin-China on the Saigong and Kambodia 
rivers, borders on eastern Siam. Of late years it has been 
attacked by the French, who have taken and hold Saigong. 

The great marble ruins of the ancient capital of the Thinse, 
near Saigong have long been known. The Kambodians were 
remarked by the early Arab voyagers as manufacturers of very 
fine linen. The natives call themselves Kammeren Khmer 
(=Aymara). Kitaya, too, or Indo-China, may be equivalent to 
Kissii, or Cissi, and to Quichua. It is to be observed that the 
explored monuments of Kambodia are not ancient like those of 
Babylonia, but rather modern and synchronous with those of 
Peru and Mexico, but it is probable earlier remains will be 
found. 

Kambodia has been studied by M. Mouhot, by M. Gamier in 
his large and valuable work, and lately by Mr. Kennedy, in his 
paper read before the Indian Section of the Society of Arts 
(Journal, 1873-4), when I presided, and had the opportunity of 
giving some early explanations of the linguistic relations as re- 
corded in the Journal of the Society. 

The ancient kingdom of Camboja, in India, which gave name 
to the Gulf of Camboja, or Cambay, has engaged the attention of 
Indian archeologists, but not to the degree its importance merits. 
In the later history of this kingdom it was still considerable, but 
it was the representative of an ancient and perhaps the earliest 
civilisation of India, belonging to that epoch, which was univer- 
sal, of which General Cunningham has found the examples. 

The river names of India are repeated in New Granada on the 
one hand and in Etruria and Italy on the other, in conformity, 
as I stated in a note sent to the International Congress of Ori- 
entalists (N. Trubner) . The town names obey the same law. It 
was from India and not from Babylonia that we may, as said, 
assume that the stream of civilisation passed towards the Pacific, 
and in India will yet be found the origins and remains of early 
letters, the influence of which to this day will still be recognised. 
The two names of the hundred-streamed feeder of the Indus, 
J/csudrus (100, Georgian), and Zadudrus (100, Sanskrit), are 
worthy of note as also athasi (1,000, Georgian), and athasi (88 
Hindustani). 

The Akkad, or Sumerian, must be looked upon as a main 
stock of the class. Of the cuneiform inscriptions, the Assyrian 
and the later Persian had been deciphered, while an early type, 
named after the kings of Accad, remained obscure. Mr. Oppert 
supported a non-Semitic and non-Aryan interpretation, and 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 43 

"by the help of the Eev. A. H. Sayce and Mons. F. Lenormant, 
many of the characters have now been read, and the language is 
disclosed to the world. 

What that language may be has been hitherto a matter of 
dispute. The chief authorities upon it have shown many rela- 
tions with Vasco-Kolarian and Ugrian, while I have confirmed 
my own forecast ("Journal of the Anthropological Institute," 
1871, pp. 53, 58) that it would be found to have Georgian 
affinities, and to belong to a Palseo- Asiatic class. I am now, 
however, able more distinctly to assign its position, by showing 
that, whatever its other affinities may be, it is closely connected 
in language with the former monument and city-building races 
of the Old and New World. 

In the tenth chapter of Genesis, Accad is brought into the 
scheme of classification under the family of Ham. " The early 
kings of [Chaldea] entitled themselves rulers of Sumiri and 
Accad-" (Sayce, "Journal of Philology/' vol. iii, 1). Dr. Hincks, 
on the strength of inscriptions belonging to Accad, had proposed 
for the language the name of Accad, but Mr. Oppert directed 
attention to the fact that the people called themselves Sumir or 
Sumer, and urged the adoption of the term Sumerian. This 
appears worthy of support from the nature of allied forms. 
Samaria, a holy city and country, Semirus in Armenia, and 
Seumara in Iberia, are perhaps forms of Sumer. Eaamah and 
Eoma would be conformable. Armenia belongs to the same 
stock and epoch. 

Smyrna (Smurna) and Samorna, of Ephesus, may also be 
assigned, as may be Asmurna of Hyrkania and Zimura of Aria. 
Ephesus and Smyrna must have been great seats of Sumerians. 
There we have Mount Sipylus (Sipula), with the Suburu or 
statue (Akkad) of Mobe. Near is another Lyde- Sumerian 
sculpture, the Pseudo-Sesostris of Nynipha. Near Ephesus is 
Pygela or Pugela (Pucala, Pucara, the castle), the E changing 
to L in this district. 

It is to be observed that, besides the cuneiform, wedge-shaped, 
or arrow-headed, there is an earlier character of the Akkad 
people, to which Mr. Oppert has given the name of " hieratic." 
In my opinion the Hamath inscriptions of Syria are to be 
deciphered on this basis, and the Maya of Yucatan has apparent 
resemblances. If this be the case we may look for inscriptions 
of the Akkad period, if not class, in the buried cities of India. 
It was long since pointed out by me that there w T ere early 
alphabets, independent of Phoenician, and springing from the 
basis of the hieratic and arrow-headed, and I referred to || being 
used in arrow-headed, and the Libyan of Thugga for Son, to 
the probable connection of -|- , Hamath, ^ hieratic, and tf Hebrew, 



44 Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

with Cypriate, and to other characters common in Warka, 
Cypriote, Himyaritic, and Albanian. The passage of an alphabet 
from Babylonia is now acknowledged through the discoveries in 
Cypriote and at Hissarlik. I attribute the Celtiberian charac- 
teristics to a like origin. 

The Georgian languages afford an interpretation of some of 
the terms of the pre-Hellenic topographical nomenclature of the 
Old World. These languages now include the Karthueli or 
Georgian, the Swan, the Lazian of Asia Minor, the Mingrelian, 
etc. One ancient representative appears to me to have been 
the Canaanite. 

While the names of rivers and places are uniform in Asia 
Minor, the few remains of the language and inscriptions, ex- 
cept the Lycian, which is most likely Lesghian, appear to 
conform to a Canaanite or Georgian standard. To this, 
in compliance with ancient tradition, the Etruscan is by me 
annexed, as it was in 1870 and 1871 ("Journal of the An- 
thropological Institute,'-' pp. 56, 58), although it must be 
stated that my materials of interpretation have as yet been 
scanty. The Eev. Isaac Taylor, who has published a book on 
a Ugrian hypothesis of Etruscan, at the Congress of Orientalists 
produced a further paper as to the connection of Etruscan with 
Accad, which is based upon and confirms my views. In illus- 
tration of the general connection, and of the interesting ques- 
tion of Etruscan, Tables I and II may be referred to. 

One source of Etruscan, as of some other extinct languages, 
is to be traced by the same process of " survival " as in all 
anthropological departments. Latin will, when duly worked 
by analysis, form a rich mine. 



Survivals of Etruscan in Latin. 



Goat ... 


... capra 


Spring 


... scaturigo 




scatebra, etc 


Sieve ... 


... crib ruin 


Old ... 


. . . vetus 


Straw, pipe 


stipula 


Seat ... 


... scabellum 




scamnus 


Crime ... 


... scelus 


Brush ... 


... scopetus 



tsqori, Georgian 
tsqaroni „ 
tskhrili „ 

azvili „ 

thskepli „ 



tsodva 
tsetsklii 



While Canaanitic and Hamath come within the Hamitic 
scheme of Genesis, and are so far allied to Sumerian, which 
their character of culture supports ("Journal of the Anthropo- 
logical Institute," 1871, p. 58), yet there are divergences of 
language and of culture so great that I cannot but regard the 
Canaanitic, Lydian, and Etruscan, as constituting a distinct 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



45 









> 








d 








H 








<B 








Pk 








cfl 


o 


a 


.3 


d 




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Ph 


o» 








o 


S 




o3 


-"d 


2 


-(-2 


44 


Pi 


44 


d 


o3 


o 


rt 


rQ 


ft 


44 



Ph .3 



63 * J d 

3 ° M 3 

d d fl r£ ^ 

e3 c3 ra o £3 



is" 

.2 «8 

.r? * 

-^ S3 
.2 eS 






rH 


ce 


ce 






o 


S3 




O 


s-i 


c3 


S3 




6 


U 


o 




f=^ 


43 






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0) 
rd 


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ft 




> 








-£j 


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X2 


r^ 



Ot5 



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d_r 
o eg 
> N 



CD 



3^ 



be 

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S3 





S3 






eg 






,-~v o 




hn 


(XI -rH 






•-^ -S^l 


© 




h3.h t>» 


d 


. 


pj > O^ 


s ^ 



S 0*1 -Slip's 



m 








id 


ti. 




: 


■i-T 


cd 








44 






43 


43 


i-I N 


r3 


Ki 


cS 


fjj 


^—- O CO 


44 



:t3 : 
d 

^.rd 

% z& 






H 



111 
cs d ft 



g § S 3 

c3 ^, d ?h 
44 aJ o3 c3 



» d 5" 

•5*3 dJ3 3£sj3 a 



■3-d' 
ft"S 

c3 eg , 



,_, 03 q3 rj Pi cd 
<d S bD CD ^ rd 

O e3 c3 ai^-P 



O p, c3 =3 






• d • 

g I? 

« CD X 



C &D 



44 ^ 

Wcc5K ^"fi b K M PQ go kT^ PQ 5 > S ^ 



• • • • d 

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46 



Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



TABLE II. 

Etruscan. Georgian. Akkad. Circas. Carab.,etc. Canaan. Peruvian. 



1.. 


. makh 


— 


2.. 


. thu 


— 


3.. 


. zal 


. sami . 


4.. 


. huth 


. othkbi 


5.. 


. ki, kiem . 


. kkuthi 


6.. 


. sas 


. ekusi . 


7.. 


. be(m)ph . 


. shwidi 


10.. 


. alchl? . 


— 



— oh ... — 
essa ... shee ... htsan 



shoa 



mai 
yscay 
kimsa 
ttab.ua 

sojta 

pakalko 

kalko 



branch, at present to be assigned to Sumerian, but perhaps 
afterwards to be sub-divided. 

In the following illustrations the same characteristics as in 
Etruscan are to be found : — 



Asia Minor. 



W. and E. Asia. 



America. 



Earth 
Water 
Rock 
Garden 






... gissa, Lydian ... yatta, Circas; Khsach, Cambodian] 

... vedu, Phrygian ...pseh, Circas; pi, Monlabtayeh, Huastec 

... taba, Carian ... tepe, Aztek 

. . . ganos, Phrygian . . . kana, Georgian ; gana 
Accad 

Village, town . deba, Tbracian ... daba, Georgian ... deba, Guarani 
Fat, oil ...pikerion, Phrygian pshey, Circas; pa? 

Accad ... ... raccu, Quichua 

Sheep ... ma, Phrygian ... maylley, Circas; me 

(goat) Cambodian., llama, Peruvian 
Horse . . . ala, Carian ...[la, animal syllable, 

Accad] ... 
King ...gala, Carian ... ungal, Accad ... , 

Hamath, or some such local metropolis, most likely afforded 
the centre of a distinct development of civilisation, w 7 ith trinal 
forms of language and mythology, and producing syllabic and 
alphabetic characters, afterwards attributed to the Phoenicians. 

Georgian and Akkad have double plurals, the remains of a 
prehistoric characteristic, and there are resemblances in the verbs 
and numerals, but there are dissimilarities. As already written, 
the Georgian double plurals -ni and -bi figure as third personal 
pronouns in Akkad. These particles are not without resemblance 
to negatives. 

At an early period of the examination of Georgian, I was 
much struck with the propensity for sticking in or inserting 
consonants, as in Mexican and other languages. The immediate 
explanation of the tl in Mexican is, however, to be sought in 
Circassian. In Georgian it is perhaps th. 

The exact affinities of Georgian are not shown by the existing 
members of the Sumero-Peruvian class. Some are found in Ka, 
a language allied to the Indo-Chinese group, and some in Cam- 
bodian. Georgian is evidently related to Etruscan. Thus — 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



47 



Head ... 

Mouth 
River ... 
Rock, mountain 
Stone ... 



... thawi, Georgian 



pin 
mdinare .. 



tma 



,.. tuwi, Ka 

,.. soar ,, 

... daktani, Ka; tanle, Cambodian 

tamoe 



The elements of Georgian are found in the numerals 1 erthi, 
G (trao K) ; 2 ori (bur) ; 3 sami (tarn) ; 4 othki (chin) ; 5 
khouthi (ka) ; 8 rwa (peh) ; 9 tskhratsar (Khong). 
Ka is found for 5 on the left-hand in Mon. 
The Georgian numerals equal the left-hand Mon and Ka 
numerals. 

Comparison of Akkad and Georgian Grammar. 

Akkad. Georgian. 

= Nouns more than one plural 
= Emphatic form ending in a vowel 
= Nagative series 
= Formation of persons of verbs 
= Formation of participle 

= Formation of negative verbs by the prefix Nu 
= Resemblance of numbers ... 
= Insertion in verb of pronouns governed 
= Use of postpositions 
= UseofNi, Bi .. 
= Use of M and S 

The following tables show the comparison of Akkad : — 



Na 



Comparison op Akkad 
Akkad. 
Noun, emphatic state— a 
„ Dual = 2 (kas) 
„ pronouns postportional = 
„ several plurals = 

„ pi — ene = 

— mes 
„ plural by duplication = 

,, locative — ta = 

„ ablative — na = 

„ opportune— gal = 

Verbs, governed 

pronouns incorporated = 
,, plural — une— ne = 

— mus — s 
„ gan to be, exist = 

Noun 

Adjective after noun 
Pronouns S. 1 ? 2 ? 3, two forms 

PI. 3 = 

,, Demonstrative some resemble = 

Conjunction Cama, with, and = 

Numerals, many = 

ordinals — kam = 



and Quichua Grammar. 

Quichua. 
None 
Dual regarded = 2 (pura) 

-cuna -ntin 



-ta, through 
-nae, wanting 
? -ccepi (after, behind) 
persons not the same 

-un? 

-chic 

can, to be 

numeral used without plural 

before noun 



cama, according as 

all 

-nequen 



Eeferring to affinities of language, the town of Eten in Peru 
is said to have a peculiar language, and it is asserted that the 
population can converse with the Chinese labourers. This state- 



48 



Hyde-Claeke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



merit has been quoted by Mr. Clements Markham, and is denie( 
by Consul Hutchinson (" Peru/' vol. ii, p. 202), who visited 
Eten. As the Consul does not give any Chinese, or any speci- 
men of the language, it is difficult to decide. He quotes Mr. 
Stevenson as saying that they speak Chinioo. If this language 
is allied to the other cultivated languages. of Peru, then some 
numerals and a few other words may resemble Chinese and 
give foundation for the report. 

It will be seen that the resemblance to the Indo-Chinese is 
such as to give an explanation of many of the supposed cases 
of connection with Chinese. One of the best examples of 
supposed linguistic resemblance to Chinese was given by Mr. 
Stephen Powers in the " Atlantic Monthly" for March, 1874, 
p. 321, with regard to the Gallinomero. These are tribes on 
the north -west coast of America, near Healysburg, on the lower 
reaches of Eussian Eiver. The identification is, however, in- 
conclusive, because Gallinomero is allied to Khwakhlamayu, and 
that again to Kulunapu, which again is a branch of the Yuma 
class. Mr. C. G. Leland has undertaken to publish an account 
of the Chinese intercourse with North America. 







Gallinomero 


1... 




... ehah 


2... 




... ako 


3... 




... sibbo 


4... 




... metah 


5... 




... shuh 


6... 




... lancha 


7... 




... latko 


8... 




... kometah ... 


9... 




... chapko 


10... 




... chasuto 


Fire 




... oho 


D0£ 




... hiyu 


Day 




... majih 


Eve 







Mouth 







Hand 







Foot 







Wood, 


log 


... moosu 


Great 




... bata(ta) 


Du, make 


... tseena 


Sun 




... ada 


Strength. 


...cha 



Khwakhlamayo. 



n u 
aa 

psha 
sakhi 



Chinese. 

yih 
ar 



wu 

luh 

tsih 

pah 

khi 

shih 

sho 

kinen 

J* 

yen 

hou 

shen 

kio 

muteu 

ta 

tso 

yat 

chelih 



The resemblance of the names of places is very deceptive, 
but that between the names of Peruvian and Yucatan places 
and Old World nomenclature is so striking as to require record, 
and it suitably follows the linguistic portion. In fact, there is 
scarcely a Peruvian or Maya name which cannot be at once 
dealt with ; but Mexican is more refractory. The nomencla- 
ture of India within and beyond the Ganges, of Babylonia, of 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



49 



repre- 



Etruria, and Italy, and even of Britain, is reproduced or 
sented in South America. 

The Eev. Mr. Sayce states ("Journal of Philology," 1870, 
vol. iii, p. 45) that "a continuation of W. Yon Humboldt's 
researches in local names has extended the range of the 
Basque across the south of Europe as far as Asia Minor, and 
the sub-family thus formed may conveniently be called 
" Iberian." This is an error in which I have shared, as W. Yon 
Humboldt includes many names in Spain as Basque which are 
not so, and the names so spoken of may be found in India or 
Peru. 

The following shows the river names 
comparison with India and Italy (Etruria) 

New Granada. India, etc. 



of New Granada in 



Italy, etc. 



Cane 


...Cainas 




Guayabera 


... Chaberis 




Guape 


... Kophos 




Cusiana ... 


... Acesines 


... Casuentus 


Catarumbo 


... Catabeda 




Cibao 





Gabellas 


Garigoa . . . 


... Gouraios 




Cauca 


... Cacathis 


... Caicus, A. Minor 


Ite 





trtis 


Humedea ... 


... Namadas 




Lengupa ... 





Longinus 


Ariguani . . . 


... [Rhogomanus, Persia] 


... Rigonum. 


Meta 


... Andomatis 


... Medoakus 


Margua 


... [Margus, Margiana] 


... Nikia, Nato 


Nachi 





Nar, rTure 


Nare 





Anapus 


Napipi 





[Enipeus, Macedonia] 


Neusa 





Anassos 

[Nessos, Macedonia] 


Upia 





[Abus, Britain] 


Paute 


... Spauto, lake 


... Padus 

[Boetis, Spain] 


Togui 


... Tokosanna 


... Togisonus 


Tamar 


... Tamarus 


... Tamarus 




[Tamyrus, Syria] ... 


... [Tarnaros, Britain] 


Tachira . . . 


■ 


Ticarios 


Tiguanaqui 





Digentia 


Tumila 


... Temala 




Onzaga 


■ — - 


Sekies 


Zulia 





Silis, Silarus 


Suta 


... Sadus ... 




Sarare 


... Serus ... 


... Sarius 


Suarez 


... Sarabis 


... Siris 
... JEsurus 


Sisigua 


... Suasius 


... Sossius 


Semindoco 


... Tokosanna 




Sumapia ... 





Sumathus, Sicily 


Sichiaca ... 


... Sittokakis 


... Sekies 


Sube 


... Sobanus 


... Sabis 




Sapara 


... [Asopus, Greece] 
Sinnus 


Sinu 


... Sonus ... 


... Asinarus, Sicily 
[Sonus, Hibernia] 

E 



50 



Hyde-Clarke.— Researches in Prehistoric and 



Other river names are- 
America. 



Caca, Bolivia ... 
Cachy, Peru ... 

Chira, Peru ... 
Curaray, Peru 
Aguan, C. America 
Ulua, C. America 
Guapai, Bolivia 
Montagua, C. America ... 

Mira, Ecuader 
Marona, Ecuader 
Mayo (river name), Peru. 
Mexico ... ,„ 

Mantaro, Peru 
Mapiri, Bolivia 
Lenipa, C. America 
Lacantum, C. America ... 

Nasas, Mexico 
Nape, Ecuader 

Pita, Ecuader... 
Piti, Mexico ... 
Putu (mayo) Ecuader 
Panuco, Mexico 
Babo, Ecuader 
Babispe, Mexico 
Paso (mayo) Peru 

Yapura, Ecuader 
Eimac, Peru ... 
Arispe, Mexico 
Sirama, C. America 
Ohosura, Mexico 
Samala, C. America 
Sintalapa, C. America 
Usumasinta, Mexico 
Sumbay, Peru 
Zacatula, Mexico 

Tepitapa, C. America 
Tabasquillo, Mexico 
Tambo, Peru ... 
Tula, Mexico ... 
Dauli, Ecuader 
Tamoin, Mexico 
Yavari, Peru ... 
Ica, Peru 
Huasa, Peru ... 

With regard to lake 
names — 

Lakes — America. 
Parras, Mexico 
Patzcuaro, Mexico 
Chapala, Mexico 



India and East. 



Cacathis, I. 

Kainas, I. 
Koplios, I. 



Mais, I. ... 
Manda, I 
Mophis, I. 
Lombare, I. 



West. 
Caicus, A. Minor 
Caicinus, Italy 
Csecina, Italy 
Akiris, Italy 

Ollius, Italy 
Gabellus, Italy 
Mitua, Macedonia 
Modoacus, Italy 
Merula, Italy 
Himera, Sicily 

Munda, Spain 



Lambrus, Italy 
Alukus, Italy 
Helicon, Italy 

Anassus, Italy 

Anapus, Sicily 

_' , " Enipeus, Macedonia 

Catabeda, I. extra ... Padus, Italy 
Bcetis, Spain 



Spauto [lake] 



Hypbasis, India 
Phasis, Colchis 



Zariaspis, Bactriano 
Serus, India 

Sabalaessa, India .. 
Sandabalus, India .. 



.. Sambus, I. 

.. Attabas, I. 
.. Tava, I. .. 



Temala, I. extra 
Chaberis, India 



Pitanus, Corsica 
[Benacus (lake), Italy, N.] 
Baebe (lake), Greece 
Fevos, Italy 
. Poesus, A. Minor 

Hipparis, Italy 
Eubiko, Italy 

. Siris, Italy 
iEsurus, Italy 

. Sontinus, Italy 
Ossa, Italy 

Sekies, Italy 
Tolenus, Italy 
Tobios, Britain 
Tavis, Italy 
Timavus, Italy 
Tolenus, Italy 
Tilurus, Illyria 
Tamion, Britain 

Axios, Macedonia 
iEsis, Italy 



names, they appear to be related to river 



Old World (E) Eiver. 
Prasias, Thessaly; Prasiane, India, W 
Gouraios (E), India 
Copais, Bceotia 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



51 



America — Lakes. 

Fuquene, Mexico 
Peten, Central America ... 
Amatitan, Central America 
Tamiagua, Mexico 
Titicaca, Peru 

Chinchaycocha, Peru 



Old World (E) Eiver. 

Fucinus, Italy, Sabine 

Pitanus (E), Corsica 

Andomatis (E), India 

Tamion (E), Britain 

Caicus (E), A. Minor; Cacathis (E), 

India 
Cainas (E), India 



The identifications of Fuquene and Peten are striking. 

In the reduction of mountain names very little fortune has 
ever attended me. The cause appears to be that few are Sume- 
rian, that some are Agaw, and that some are most likely older. 

Old World. 

Cottia, Alpes 

Pactyas 

Syngaras, Mesopotamia 

Cithseron, Greece 

Oropeda, Spain 

Pangseus, Macedonia 

Ossa, Greece 

Pelion, Greece 

Idubeda, Spain 

Bcetios, Drangiana 

(Eta, Athos, Greece 

Ida, Asia Minor, etc. 

Alesion, Greece; Olgassys, A. Minor 

Pkoestus, Greece 

Pierius, Greece 

Maro, Sicily 

Cadmus 



America. 

Cotopaxi, Ecuader 
Cotocha 

Sangay, Ecuader 
Tancitaro, Mexico 
Orizava, Mexico 
Apanecas, Central America 
Assuay, Ecuader 
Pulla, Ecuader 
Ambato, Ecuader 

Atitlan, Central America 

Alausi, Ecuader 

Pasto, Ecuader 

Perote, Mexico 

Merendon, Central America 

Cadlud. Ecuader 



Some of these must be identical. 



The town names are thus shown: — 



Peru. 

*Arica... 
*Eecuay 
Urcum 



Arequipa 



*Arapa 



Yura ... 
Huaura 
*Oruro 

Astobamba 



Mexico and Central America. 



Old World. 



. . * Trapuata, Mexico 
Eabin, Central America 

.. Yoro, Central America 

.. Aviare E, Central America 
Arispe E, Central America 
.. Iztapalapan, Mexico ... 



*Arakha, Susiana 
Arakhosia, Persia 
Arikaka, Arakhosia 
Araxa, Lycia 
*Erech, Accad (Bible) 
*Eechah (Bible) 
Aricada, Drangiana 
Aragorasa, Armenia 
Archabios, Colcbis 
Arukanda, Lycia 
Argos, Greece 
...*Arubath (Bible) 
... Arabissus, Cappadocia 

Arbaka, Arakhosia 
... Ora, India E. 

... *Oruras, A. Minor 

... Zariashes (E) Bactriana 

... *Hasta, Liguria 

E 2 



52 



Hyde-Claeke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Peru. 
# Huasta 



Ambato, M 

*Acoramba 

Illampe, M 

Cosapa 

Casuia 

Cuzmo 

*Cbosica 

# Cuzco 

Quisco 

Congata 

Canchari 

Cbancay 

Conongo 

Acafi. . . . 

Quinoa 

*Cacary 

Caquiaviria 

Cbiclayo 
*Cbepen 



# Chip ay a 



Talcanta 
Quillo... 



Cbilca . . 
Quellca 
Colca .. 



*Chumu 
*Cairne 

*Cambe 
Combapata 
Chicamo 
* Cam an a 



Mexico and Central America. 



Ambalema, New Granada 



# Cosuma, Yucatan 



*Cuisco, Mexico 
Chuscak New G-ranada 

Concanu, Yucatan 

Conagua, New Granada 
Concbasua, Central America 



Cacabuanrilpa, Mexico 
Chiquisa, New Granada 

Cocbilha, New Granada 
*Copan, Central America 
*Coban, Guatemala ... 



Caparrapi, New Granada 
*Cbipata, New Granada 

*Kabab, Yucatan 
Chepo, New Granada . . . 



*Chapala, Mexico 
*Chapul, Mexico 
Acapulco, Mexico 



Cundinamarca, New Granada 

*Akil, Yucatan 

Cbollolan, Mexico 



*Chalco, Mexico 
Chalcicomula, Mexico ... 
*Colosa, New Granada 
Chalisco, Mexico 
Comayagua, Honduras 
*Cuame, New Granada 
Cbima, New Granada 



# Cucumba, New Granada 



Old World. 

Asta, Liguria and Lusitania 
Asbdod (Bible) 
Astasanna, Aria 
Astbagura, India E. 
Astakapra ,, 

*Corombo (R) Carmania 
Cosamba, India S. 
*Cosamba, India S. 



*Cuzikos, A. Minor 
*Gauzaka, Paropamisada 
Cboastra, Media 
Concana, Spain 
Iconium, A. Minor 
Xoana, India 
Gain, Palestine 
Aquinium, Italy 

*Ackaracha, Caria 
Gaggra, Papblagonia 
Gagasmira, India E. 
Cocala, India S. 
*Cabena, Media 
*' Cap en a, Etruria 
*Cabbon, Palestine 
Cepiana, Lusitania 
Caberasa, Media 
Capution, Sicily 
*Gibbeath, Palestine 
Cuba, India S. 
"Capua, Italy 
*Gaba, Palestine 
Gabii, Italy 
*Capula, Venetia 
Cubilia, Lycia 

*Cabale, Media 
Cabul, Palestine 
Conta, India E. 
Aricanda, A. Minor 
*Aquileia, Italy 

Kaloe, Lydia 
Keilab, Palestine 
Agylla, Etruria 
Akela, Media 
*Chalcis,, Bceotia 
Gilgal, Palestine 

*Colossai, Phrygia 
Akalissos, Pontus 
*Cume, Mysia 
# Cumse, Italy 
Cboma, Pisidia 
*Cambe, Geclrosia 

*Cocambo, Gedi-osia 
*Comania, Caria 



Protohistovic comparative Philology, etc. 



53 



Peru. 


Mexico and Central America. Old World. 


*Guamani 


.. *Guaman, Mexico 


.. *Comana, Pontus and Capp. 


9 9 


— 


Cominium, Samnium 




Guaymas 


.. Chemosh (Bible) 


,, 


— 


Gimza (Bible) 


,, 


— 


Camisa, Cappadocia 


*Chimeroo 


— 


*Kimara, India E. 


# Catari 


.. # Cbatura, New Granada 


.. *Cy torus, Armenia 


> ? 


*Cadereita, Mexico 


.. *Coddura, India S. 


95 


Catarumbo E, New Granada. 


.. Co'ttiara, India S. 


,, 


— 


Cotuora, Pontus 


Quito ... 


.. *Cuaita, New Granada 


. . Kattah, Palestine 


*Coati... 


.. Oicata, New Granada... 


.. *Cuta, Colchis 


55 





*Caudium, Sabine 


*Chatuna 


— 


# Catana, Sicily 


^Costaparaca 


— 


*Cotobara, India S. 


Costabamba . 


— 


*Cottobara, Gedrosia 


Curaray, K, . 


.. *Carere R, New Granada 


. *Careura, Caria and India 


*Ocaruro 







5> 


Charala, New Granada 


. Guru la, India S. 


* Charasani . 


— 


*Caresena, Mysia 


Charcani 


.. Chiriguana, New Granada .. 


. Corcobana, Ceylon 


*Chuana 


.. Chanaco, Mexico 


. Kanah, Palestine 


99 


Canipauna, New Granada 


. Kana, Mysia 


55 


Cunacua, New Granada 


. Kcene, Cappadocia 


55 


— 


*Canagara, India S. 


# Caracona 


— 


# Aganagara, India extra. 


59 


— 


Khoana, Parthia 


Ocona 


. Ocansip, Yucatan 


. Aganagara, India extra. 


*Ascona 





*Oskana, Gedrosia 


99 


— 


# Assecona, Spain 


* Aeora 





*Acarra, Susiana 


* Acari 





*Achor, Palestine 


Acoramba 





*Cora, Lalutus 


Corocuero 





Agiria, Spain 


*Ancon 





*Ancona, Italy 


Haucane 







*Colan 


. Calan, Yucatan 


. Calneh, Accar (Bible) 







*Gelan, Palestine 


Calanacoche .. 





Calindoca, India S. 


*Calasnique .. 


— 


Calinaxa. India S. 


99 


*Oculan, Mexico 


. Okelum, Lusitania 
Akelanum, Sabine 


Cailloma 


. Caluma, Ecuador 


. Gallim, Palestine 


Calupe 


,. Jalapa, Mexico and C. Amer. 


. Calpe, M. 


Challapa 


. Jutigalpac, America 


. Haran (Bible) 


Ocharan 


— 




,, 


♦Garupa, New Granada 


. Acharna, Attica 


Caropango . . 


. *Labna,, Yucatan... 


. *Gariphus, India 


Llapo 


. *Labhakhabpha, Yucatan .. 


. *Labbana, Mesopotamia 


>> • • ■ 


— 


*Labaca, India S. 


Lambayeque.. 


. Latnpa, Salvador ... 


. Alambatesa, Com aria 


Illampo, M .. 


. Liborina, New Granada 


. Lampsacus, A. Minor 


J? 





Lombare, India 


Larecaja 


— 


Lariaga, India E. 


Mantaro 


,. Huamantla, Mexico 


. Mendola, India S. 


*Manani 


. . Mani, Yucatan ... 


,. *Maniaena, India E. 


Mani ... 





Amana, Media 


Mirinavis 


.. Merindon, Honduras 


.. Morunda, Media 


Marona 







Machurana . 


.. Macaranita, New Granada . 


.. Magaris. India S. 



Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Peru. 


Mexico and Central America. 


Old World. 


Macliurana 


... Mogorontoque, New Granada 


Mogarus, Pontus 


? ? 


— 


Makrasa, Lycia 


*Macari 


— 


*Megara, Gr., Sicily 


>> 


Mozca, Mexico ... 


. Maxere, Hyrcania 




Mescala ,, 




j> 


*Mogote, New Granada 


. Maguda, Mesopotamia 


*Malla 


— 


*Mala, Pontus 
Millo, Palestine 


Amiloe 


— 


Amilos, Arcadia 


Mantaro 


— 


Manda, India 


*Marcara 


— 


*Margara, India E. 


♦Marcornarcani Cundinaniarca 


. *Margana, Ceylon 




— 


JVIaricada, Bactriana 


»> 


*Margua (E) New Granada ., 


,. *Margus (E) Margiane 


>» 


*Masaya, Yucatan 


,. ^Massah, Palestine 




— 


*Amasia, Pontus 


* Ma sin 


— 


*Messana, Sicily 


>> 


— 


Messene, Greece 


*Mapiri, E, 


— 


*Mapura (E), India 


*Napo... 


... *Neyba, New Granada 


. *Nebo (Bible) 


55 


— 


Nebah (Bible) 


,, 


— 


*Nepea, Pbrygia 


*Nasca 


— 


*Nasica, India S. 


Nanasca 


... ^Nunkini, Yucatan 


.. *Nanaguna, India S. 


,, 


Nicaragua, C. America 


,. Nuceria (?), Italy 


55 


— 


Anaguros, Greece 


> J 


Nimaima, New Granada 


,. Nommana, Carmania 


55 


Nare „ 


. . Nar, Italy 


55 


— 


Anara, India S. 


•Unanue 


— 


*Ninue, Nineveh 


55 


— 


(Accad) Bible 


55 


Oiba, New Granada 


.. Ophia, Sabine 


55 


Upia ,, 


.. Apbia, Phrygia 


(Pucara, castle) 


[cara, castle, Akkad] 


* Pucara 


... *Bucaramanga, New Granada *Begorra, Macedonia 


♦Pucala 

55 


— 


*Pygela,, Ionia 
Pegella, Lycaonia 


Azangari 


— 


Agara, Susiana 


55 


— 


„ India S. 


Patapa 


... [Patawi, Siam] ... 


.. Patavium, Bytbinia 


Patavilca 


— 


,, Italy 


Pataz ... 







*Paita... 


... Pauta, New Granada 


.. *Bata, India S. 


Ayapata 


... *Pitu, Mexico 


.. Beda, Mesopotamia 


*Pita ... 


... Peto, Yucatan 


.. *Pida, Pontus 


Putu ... 


... *Ubate, New Granada 


.. *Eboda, Palestine 


?J 





Pitueia, Mysia 


}J 





Pbauda, Pontus 


*Putina 


... *Peten, Yucatan ... 


.. *Pitane, Mysia 


55 


Potoncbau, Yucatan 


.. * Padua, Palestine 


55 





Bitoana, Caria 


Piura ... 


... Perote, Mexico ... 


.. Pieria, Greece 


Yapura 


— 


„ Syria 


.. 





Pbiarasa, Pontus 


•Pitura 


... *Paturia, New Granada 


.. ^Patara, Lycia 


55 


Necopetara, Mexico 


.. Badara, Carnitbia 


55 


— 


Sobatra, Lycaonia 


55 


# Zupetara, C. America 
Sopetran, New Granada 


.. *Opetura, India 


*Paria 


... *Para „ 


.. *Parium 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



55 



Peru. Mexico and Central America. 

Paria ... ... Paracheque, New Granada 

,, Ibarra, Ecuader ... 



Parara 





Pararin 


— 




Parras, Mexico ... 


>j 


*Barichara, New Granada 


*Parac 


. Parachoque ,, 


Cotaparaco . 


— 


Pariacbe 


— 


Pariacote 





Paruchay 


— 


Puno ... 


, — 


* Puny on 


— 


Panos ... 


— 


Pando... 





*Papai 


. *Paipa, New Granada 


Babo ... 


— 


*Pusi 





Puzuzi 


— 


*Pasa(mayo).. 


— 


Pisagua 


— 


(Pirca Quichua 


Wall, Enclo 




sure) 


— 


5) 

*Pomalca 


. *Paime, New Granada 


Picbigua 


. Bogota ,, 


Puquien 


. Pachuco, Mexico ... 


Pacas (mayo).. 


— 


Palalayuca .. 


— 


» 


Bolonchan, Yucatan 


* Pasco 


. Tobasco, Yucatan 


*Posco 


— 


* Pis co 





Piscabacba . . 


— 


Pacsi ... 


— 


*Pista 


. * Piste, Yucatan ... 


Arambolu 


. *Arama, New Granada 


*Eacanya 


. *Ariguani, New Granada 


Tacaraca 


— 




Raquira, New Granada 


>j 


Sinu ,, 


5 J 


— 




Sanalarga ,, 


J J 


*Sinoloa, Mexico ... 


J> 


Sonora ,, 


Aposungo 


. Okosingo, Yucatan 


Sangay 


. Texancingo, Mexico 


*Cbarasani .. 


— 


5> 

Antisana 


__ 


*Sanagoran .. 


— 



*Sonsonate, S. Salvador 



Old World. 
Pyrrba, Caria 
Birei, Palestine 
Podoperura, India extra. 

Parisara ,, 

*Barakura „ 

*Beracbab, Palestine 
Pbarugia, Doris 
Verrugo, Latium 
Barkine, Spain 

*Punon, Palestine 
Panion, Tbessaly 

Pandassa, India extra 
*Papba, Pisidia 
*Papbos, Cyprus 
*Pisse (3) 

*Paseab, Palestine 
*Epbesus, A. Minor 
# Pboizoi, Arcadia 



Pergamos 
Perga, Pampbylia 
Pyrgib, Etruria 
*Baniala, India S. 
*Apamea, Partbia 
Pbecis, Greece 
Pbokaia, Lydia 
Pauka, Italy 
Palalke, Pontus 
Bolon, Spain 
Pelon, Palestine 
*Boskatb, Palestine 
Bezek, Palestine 
*Pbuska, Macedonia 
*Physkus, Caria 
Paxos I. 
*Poestum, Italy 
*Aruma (Bible) 
# Aroma, Caria 
Ariminium, Italy 
*Eakkon (Bible) 
*Ox'icana, Media 
Arucanda, Lycia 
Aragorasa, Armenia 
Sena, Etruria and Urnbria 
Zaananim. (Bible) 
Sannala, India E. 

Posinara, India E. 
Asinarus, Sicily 
Sangada, India E. 
Sangala, ,, 
Alosanga, India extra. 
Caresena, Mysia 
Astasanna, Aria 
*Suanagora., India extra. 
# Sansannab (Bible) 



56 



- Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Peru. 


Mexico and Central Ameri< 


*Sanagoran .. 


. *Tzintzontzon, Mexico 


' " 


*Sonson, New Granada 




Site „ 




Suta 


55 


*Susa „ 


55 


Susagua „ 


55 


*Susacon, New Granada 


Soroche 


— 


Surco ... 


— 


Sorata 


. Surata, New Granada 




*Sarare, New Grana.da 


>j 


*Sura „ 


*Sikuani 


— 


* Succna 


— 


Sachaca 


.. Sachica, New Granada 


Sacayacu 


.. Soacha „ 


J? 


Sacota „ 


Sikasika 


.. Segamoso „ 


j j 


Pusugasuga ,, 


? » 


Zaccacal, Yucatan 


Sogon... 


— 


Secliura 


— 


55 


*Salli, Yucatan ... 




*Zelaya, Mexico ... 


Sullillica 


.. Zulia, New Granada 


J? 


*Salamo, Guatemala 


>> 


Salmaguela, New Granada 


Suyana 


.. *Senote, Yucatan 


" 


Zerna, New Granada 


)> 


*Zema ,, 


>» 


Zimapan, Mexico... 


55 

Sam an 


.. Semindoco, New Granada 


55 


*Samala, C. America 


*Sumbay, R, 


— 


*Supe... 


.. *Saboya, New Granada 


Monsifu 

55 


.. *Sube, S Ujy a • „ 


55 


Yzabal, C. America 


*Zepita 


— 


Zapatoca 


— 


55 


*Zupetara, New Granada 


55 


Sopetran ,, 


*Atocama 


— 


Tucuma 


.. Tocaima ,, 


*Tauca 


.. *Togui 



Old World. 
*Susonnia, Venetia 
*Nazianxene, Cappadocia 
*8aniseni, Paphlagonia 
Side, Pamphyl., Laconia 
Sidas, Greece 
*Suzah, Palestine 
Susa, Susiana 
Suissa, Cappadocia 
Suessa (R), Italy 
Suassus, India 
*Susicana,, India E. 
Syracuse, Sicily 
Saraka, Media 
Sariga, Armenia 
Saruge, A. Minor 
, Sarid, Palestine 
, *Sararra, Mesopotamia 
, *Saura, Susiana 
Saganus, Carmania 
*Saguana, Armenia 
*Sakovna, Belicia 
*Sikuon, Greece 
*Saca, Arcadia 



Adisaga, Media 
Sakasena, Cappadocia 
Zazaka, Media 
Secacah, Palestine 
Sikinos, I. 
Shicron (Bible) 
*Sala, Armenia 
*SeIa, Palestine 
# Solia, Spain 
*Salamis, (?) 
*Zalmoneh, Palestine 
Salmantike, 
Aznoth, Palestine 
*Sunnada, Phrygia 
Sarnuka, Mesopotamia 
*Skema (Bible) 
Ezem ,, 

*Zama, Capp. and Mesopo. 
Semina, Parthia 
*Simyla, India S. 
*Sambus (R), India 
Sabius, Cappadocia 
Zaba, India extra 
*Zobia, Pisidia 
Shebah (Bible) 
Sapolus, India extra 
*Zephath, Palestine 
Sibecla, Lycia 
*Sabatra, Lycaonia 

*Attacum, Spain 

# Tugea, Spain 
*Tukki, Spain 
Athach (Bible) 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



57 



Peru. 
* Tauca 



Tacaraca 
Tuquilipon 

55 

Tarapaca 



*Thalambo 
Dauli ... 



Tarma 



Tabatingo 
Tapacoche 

> ? 
*Tipuani 



Tuman 

Tumbo 
Tambo 



Mexico and Central America. 

*Tekoh, Yucatan... 
Tacubaya, Mexico 
*Tachira, New Gtranada 
Tacaloa „ 

Tekit ... 

*Tolima, New Granada 
# Toloman, Guatemala 
Tuloom, Yucatan 

Tulapan 
Tolla, Mexico 
Tolo, New Granada 
Tula, Mexico 
Tollan, Mexico ... 
Del'en, New Granada 



Old World. 
*Techoa, Palestine 
Tegea, Greece 
, # Thagora, India extra. 
^Tagara, India S. 
Taxila, India E. 
Attagus, Eceotia 
Tarrago, Spain 
*Telem (Bible) 
# Telamo 

*Telamina, Spain 
*Teleboas, A. Minor 
Tholobona, India S. 



*Tabi, Yucatan ... 
Teabo, Yucatan ... 
Tabeo, New Granada 
Tabachula, Guatemala 
Tabasquillo, Mexico 
Tepan, Mexico 
*Tibaria, New Grenada 
Tubar, Mexico 
*Tapata, New Granada 
Topia, Mexico 
Tobasco, Yucatan 
Tamoin, Mexico ... 

*Tampico, Mexico 
Temisco ,, 

*TamasinchaH, Mexico 
*Tamalameque, New Granada 
Tumila ,, 

*Tamar ,, 

Tanquicbi, Mexico 
Tenochtitlan ,, 
*Tena, New Granada 
Tiziuiin, Yucatan 
Tiza[pan], Mexico 
Tausa, New Granada 
Tuz[pan] 



Dolion, Boeotia 
Dolionis, Mysia 
Tullonium, Spain 
Dilean, Palestine 
Atarmes, Bactriana 
Tarbakana, Paropanisada 
*Taba, Phrygia, Caria ' 
Tkebse, Boeotia, Thessaly 
Tebbath, Palestine 
Tapuah, Palestine 
Thebez, Palestine 
*Tabiene, A. Minor 
*Thebura, Assyria 

*Tobata, Paphlagonia 

Thapsacus, Syria 
Dimonah (Bible) 
Temani ,, 

Tumnos, Caria 
*Tamassis, India E. 

# Temala, India extra. 

^Tamarus, India 
Taanacb (Bible) 

*Toana, India extra 
Tisia, Italy 
Tisa, Carmania 
Tiausa, India 
Dosa, Assyria 



The Accad cities mentioned in the Bible, in Genesis x, v. 
11, 12, besides Babel, Accad, and Eehoboth, are : — 



10, 



Erech compare ... 


.. Arica, Peru 


Calneh ,, 


.. Calanoche (Peru), Oculan 


Ninue or Nineveh , , 


Unanue, Peru 


Calah , , 


.. Colacote ,, 


Resen ,, 


.. Charasani,, 



Many cities in Palestine are closely represented. 

A circumstance worthy of remark, and which may indicate 



58 Hyde-Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

Sumerian influence in Brazil, if not that the Sumerians 
settlements there, is that the Gnarani word for town is Taba, 
that is Taba, Thebes, etc., of geography, the Daba of the present 
Georgians. If the Sumerians had at any time a settlement on 
the great river mouths, the passage of the Atlantic would be 
credible, and the knowledge of the Atlantic ocean by the 
geographers of Babylonia and Pergamos accounted for. 

Under this head of topographical nomenclature, a course of 
investigation is being pursued by the Eev. Professor John 
Campbell of Montreal, and formerly of Toronto, which can be 
consulted with great advantage. 

In the "Canadian Journal/' and under the titles of the "Ho- 
rites " and of " The Shepherd Kings of Egypt/' Prof. Campbell 
has adopted as his basis the genealogies of the books of Genesis, 
Kings, and Chronicles. With the help of the Egyptian and 
classic data, he is bringing to bear a flood of light upon the' 
Sumerian epoch of civilisation with regard to the genesis and 
migration of nations, and the mythology of the period. All 
tends to illustrate the importance of the protohistoric era. 

Much of this work is necessarily tentative, and although 
there are few illustrations with regard to America, these 
memoirs can be profitably consulted by the investigator in 
common with those of Lenormant and the Egyptologists. Of 
course in Bryant and many of the old mythologists many of 
the collateral facts may be found, but treated in a manner 
incompatible with our present knowledge. 

Upon the grand question of the population of Canaan, Pro- 
fessor Campbell gives us invaluable materials for forming a 
judgment. This population most probably extended into Egypt, 
where Brugsch Bey has found 400 parallel names, and in which 
I look for the " Turanian " element. Thebes, and the other old 
names by which Egypt was known to the Greeks are Sumerian. 
The intercourse with Caria long continued. The union of 
Sumerians with Semites explains the ethnological peculiarities 
of the Jews, who are evidently a mixed race with two elements. 

As to the ancient extent of the Sumerian region in America, 
it cannot yet be determined, for it must have been wider than at 
the Spanish Conquest, but with regard to the names here given 
for the New World and the Old, it must be borne in mind that 
some are Agaw, and extend into Brazil. The consideration of 
the Brazilian river names gives us a test in relation to those of 
Europe, and they confirm the opinion I have given of an Agaw 
influence in Europe anterior to the Sumerian, and which will 
have to be taken into account by the craniologist. He has to 
provide for the Vasco-Kolarian, the Agaw, and the Sumerian 
migrations. 



Protoliistoric comparative Philology, etc. 59 

The whole of the phenomena of man in America represent an 
arrested development of civilisation, cut short as compared with 
Europe and Asia, not by climate, as in Africa, and yet quite 
sufficient to include the two epochs of great stone monuments 
and of palatial works with inscriptions, epochs which embraced 
the first spiritualised religion, that of the worship of light; a time 
of thousands of years, so remote that, in the old world, it has 
now only its scanty votaries among the Parsees of Bombay. 
Time, too, so remote, that the great religions of the globe, 
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam had, with Buddhism, got time 
to expand and to cover the eastern hemisphere, while, until the 
Spanish conquest, the Americas had, in the flux of centuries, 
never heard their revelations. Few things so strongly pourtray 
the deep, dark gulf of separation as this, when associations 
which had been commonly shared from the beginning of man- 
kind, were snapped in the time of their deepest interest and 
moment, and it was hazard, and not design, placed the Indians 
that perished and the Indians that continued under the teaching 
of the missionaries of Spain and Portugal, and which all have 
not yet known. 

The evidence of language comes in support of this arrest of 
development, for there are no languages in America of the later 
and higher forms. When the early Akkad stopped, there all 
stop. This it is which gives the false impression of there being 
a peculiar and special American grammar. This has been so 
specially studied and treated, whereas, the languages in America, 
which cannot be rightly called American languages, are under 
the same conditions of prehistoric grammar as the earlier lan- 
guages of the old world. The grammar of Omagua may be as 
truly called Caucasian as American, and, if we choose, that of/ 
Abkhas might be as rightly named American as Caucasian. 

As there was in the furthest or prehistoric days a stream of 
emigration continuously from the old world to the new, the 
question arises whether this set back again, and whether a 
knowledge of the new world was carried to the old. The first 
set of population appears to have been over Behring's Straits, or 
across the narrow seas, and migrations which could cover the 
eastern world, even with Akkas and Bushmen from Lapland to 
South Africa, would be able to fill America from the snowy pole 
to Tierra del Fuego, as there is witness enough to show, in 
blood, in speech, and in folk-lore. 

It is very questionable whether at any time there was regular 
intercourse over the Atlantic, for that would have needed ships, 
and a trade once set up, other animals besides dogs, and other 
plants than those now found, would have followed man. 

In what we know of the historical period, under the Greeks 



60 Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

and the Romans, a lively knowledge of America was lost ; the 
Greeks could not reach it from the west, and the Romans, when 
they settled on the shores of the Atlantic, had other cares than 
to risk the wide, dark sea. 

A dead knowledge lingered, not only of the geography of the 
Americas, but of Australasia, which is of no less interest with 
regard to the latter region, because that exhibits, philologically, 
evidence of early migrations of the Mincopie or Pygmean in 
Borneo, of the Sandeh or Mam-Mam of the Mle in Tasmania, 
and of the Agaw in Galela, and in the other languages recorded 
by Wallace. 

There was indeed a system of geography long prevalent 
among the ancients and in the dark ages, which is referred to 
in the Timseus of Plato, and was notably maintained by Crates 
of Pergamos, 160 B.C. (Reinaud, " Journal Asiatique", vol. i, new 
series, 1863, p. 140), and also referred to by Virgil in the 
iEneid. Pour inhabited worlds were treated of, and there 
appears to have been, in traditions, an imperial title of Monarch 
of the Pour Worlds. This I connect with the statement of 
Mr. George Smith that Agu, an ancient king of Babylonia, called 
himself King of the Pour Races. Again, with Prescott, who, in 
the " Conquest of Peru," book i, ch. ii, says, — " It is certain that 
the natives had no other epithet by which to designate the 
large collection of tribes and nations who were assembled under 
the empire of the Incas, than that of Tavintinsuyu or Pour 
Quarters of the World/'' He quotes Ondegarde, Rel. Prim. MSS, 
and Garcilasso, Comentarie Real, ii, 11, This title was perhaps 
a prerogative of the middle king, or monarch of the middle 
kingdom, of the great civilized empire of the world. The 
Chinese preserve the tradition of the middle kingdom, the 
trinary having followed the quartemary system. Thus, in 
Genesis there are three sons of Noah. The Vedas refer to three 
worlds. 

The nomenclature of Ptolemy and the other geographers 
is of the Akkad epoch, and that of the early Biblical books, 
Akkad or Babylonian. 

The school of Pergamos taught that the world, which must 
have been treated as a sphere, contained four worlds. Ours 
was one of these, and as is true in Asia that it does not cross 
the line, so it was supposed that Africa does not cross the line, 
and the Babylonian geographers were well acquainted with 
Southern Asia but not with Southern Africa. This Northern 
World was balanced by an Austral World, and this is so, de- 
picting the Australasian Islands, the scene of Sumerian migra- 
tions, and Australia, which was known to them. Australia was, 
by the Sumerians as by far later geographers, supposed to 



Prololdstoric comparative Philology, etc. 61 

extend from opposite Asia, as a Terra Incognita of the maps, 
opposite Africa. 

A not less remarkable affirmation was, that the Northern 
World and that of Australia were balanced on the other side of 
the globe also by a Northern World and continent and by a 
Southern World, and this is so in North and South America. 

It was said, being nigh the truth, that these four worlds were 
cut off by belts of ocean, one from north to south, and by another 
running round the middle of the world from east to west. Such 
ocean we know shuts off Asia from Australia, and those ancients 
might be forgiven, who drew a sea over the narrow necks be- 
tween North and South America, which must then as now have 
been passed by canoes at passages on the Atrato and on other 
rivers. 

These four worlds were alleged to have their men, as we know 
they had and have, but to account amid so much truth for in- 
tercourse not taking place between them in their days, a fable 
was got up that the seas were made impassable. The philoso- 
phers, however, forgot to tell us how the knowledge of these 
other worlds and the men in them was gained. Gained too, it 
was, and lost by the cessation of intercourse, after the Sumerians, 
with the Americas. This was perhaps owing to the rise of a 
great power in China, which disturbed the road from India, and 
the seats of kingdom in Southern Asia. 

How that dream of a true globe and its continents and people 
reached the Greeks and Romans, and how it suggested to the 
flatterers of Augustus a title of monarch of those four worlds, is 
here accounted for. It must be traced beyond Pergamos to 
those older schools of learning, known to us under such a 
name as Chaldean, but which had flourished in protohistoric 
epochs from the dawn of civilisation. 

There must at one time have been in the olden world, men 
who could bring back this knowledge of the Americas from their 
Nineveh to its Nineveh and Babel, where the empire of the four 
worlds got centred, and where one language was spoken and 
written for the government of the earth. How truly was it then 
said of Rabel, " And the whole earth was of one language, and 
of one speech " (Genesis xi, 1). 

The fall of that power was indeed confusion of nations and 
of tongues. 

After a time, the tradition alone of these other worlds lingered, 
as we have seen, as a theory of cosmography ; lingering to be 
condemned by the Christian church, as a thing that men of 
learning ought not to learn, but reproduced in our own language 
by Sir John Mandeville. He insisted that the world was a 
globe and could be circumnavigated, and he tells a tale of a man 



62 Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 

from Norway, who had gone so long 'by land and by sea that he 
had environed all the earth, that he was come about to his own 
marches. 

The intercourse in times of yore between the new world and 
the old, now again brought to light, rests upon no slight evidence, 
although the whole of it cannot be included here. It comes in 
confirmation of the labours of those who have gone before me, 
and of my own, carried on step by step for some time.* 

The relationship of the topographical nomenclature and of the 
languages of the old world with those of the new, was laid down 
by me in my paper, on the "Comparative Grammar of the 
Egyptians," last year. What is now published, is the develop- 
ment and detail of the same principles which had occupied me 
for many years, but which have not till now been brought 
nearer to complete exemplification. 

It may be briefly said that my object now has been to show 
the development of language in prehistoric grammar, and the 
unity of language in all continents, and more particularly the 
unity of culture generally throughout the world, by dealing with 
what has been regarded as the exceptional position of America. 
Many points are not touched, not from want of knowledge, but 
want of space. All that has been here stated will be found in 
conformity with the results obtained by other inquirers on the 
prehistoric and protohistoric epochs, and will throw a light upon 
their labours. It is hoped that many portions will, in this 
respect, be found of general use beyond their special application. 

The development of language, mythology, and culture gener- 
ally, the migrations of nations, the naming of animals, the 
naming of mountains, of rivers, and of towns, are here illustra- 
ted, not only in the infancy of mankind, but in the institution 
of a great civilisation, so ancient that its traditions had become 
dim, and that its history has to be recovered from beneath the 
rubbish mounds of its cities. 

The history of the fall of such empires, and of such kingdoms, 
is a tempting subject, but it is one which belongs rather to the 
historian, for it took place in the ages of history, than to the 
students of the Anthropological Institute. The results may, 
however, be considered by us, for they show that the history of 
savagedom and of civilisation is the same for both halves of the 
globe. In America the forms of savagedom are better preserved 
and these give us some of the most valuable elements for filling 
up what is on our side wanting. 

The American materials are also of none the less value because 

* See various papers of mine in the Journals of the Ethnological 
Society, of the Anthropological Institute, of the Palestine Exploration 
Fund, etc. 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 63 

they lielp to build up the uniform history of civilisation, of 
progress, which may be long delayed by barbarism, but cannot 
in the end be checked. It is a progress amid which, while the 
oldest and rudest races may still live, their rudest propensities 
and habits are doomed to decay, and their bloodiest superstitions 
to be abandoned. 

The philological considerations are, in this sense, also of 
interest, because language is not only as here used a history of 
culture, but a great and living instrument of culture. Its in- 
fluence is, of course, a disturbing one as well, and hence, although 
not decisive for ethnological determination, it is none the less 
to be regarded. Speech is the heir, the representative, the 
transmitter of the accumulated experience of civilisation in 
thousands of years. Hence its apostolic power. In proportion to 
the improved capacity of transmission in cultivated languages, so 
will such languages influence a lower race to which they are com- 
municated, and by which they are used. So a low race acquiring a 
high language becomes more capable of improvement, and makes 
greater advances than the low race which retains a rude 
tongue. 

Of this there are examples enough, and in Central and South 
America the acquirement of the Spanish tongue has given large 
populations means of advancement which they do not possess in 
the Quichua or Maya, which were before written, any more 
than in G-uarani, which the Jesuits put in writing. By the 
help of Spanish the people and their leaders of pure Indian blood 
now in power, have become orators, poets, lawyers, able to take 
place alongside of those of old Spain. The effect of race 
remains, but a great advance is due to speech. 

The fusion of race wished for by some can only be effected by 
the deterioration of the better, or it will be compensated for by 
the practical annihilation of the weaker ; but the fusion of lan- 
guage is a great and safe instrument for bringing about among 
various populations a harmony of civilisation. English will thus 
act in India. It is civilisation which is the best heritage of 
mankind, and the more this can be brought within the compass 
of all, even of the meanest, the greater will be the benefit con- 
ferred upon the whole. 

Appendix Table of Sumeeian Woeds. 

The following is a brief list of words divided [into three 
regions, the American including two columns, and while in 
some cases a root may be traced throughout, it will be seen 
that more commonly the western and American roots or types 
cross in the Indo-Chinese region. This table may be much 
extended. 



64 



Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Ale., Akkad. 
C, Circassian. 
G., Georgian. 



Western. 

Man ... karra, Ak. 
niulu, Ak. 
kmari, Geo. 

tie, Circas. 
gun, un, Ak. 



ku, Akkad 

"Woman, 

etc. ... sak, Akkad 
shooz, Circ. 
rak (a) Ak. 
mak, Akkad 



Cam., Cambodian Aym., Ayniara. Mex., Aztek. 
Mon, Peguan. Q., Quichua. Oth., Othomi 
Bu., Burmese. 
Ann., Annam. 



Indo-Chinese. 

karu. Mon 
lu, Burmese .. 
[mairima, Bu., 
womanl 



Peruvian. 



Tava., Tarahuin- 

ara. 
Huas., Huasteca 
Poc, Poconchi. 

Mexican, etc. 



kkari, Aym., Q.. [ucari, Cora] 



Head 



Hair 



Face 



dam, Akkad 

ku, Akkad 
su, Akkad 
shha, Circ. 



. sik, Akkad 
shhatsey, Cir. 



...ka, Akkad 

piri, Georg. 
Eye ... limta, Ak. 

twali, Georg. ... 

nee, Circ. 

si, Akkad 
Ear ... pi, Akkad 

tal, Akkad 

quri, Georg. ... 

takumah, Circ... 
Mouth ...ka, gu, Ak. 

dzheh, shey, C. 
Tooth ...dzeh, Circas. ... 
Forehead tik, Akkad 

thkhemi, Geo 

Tongue... eme, Akkad ... 

ena, Georg. 



hplun, Mon ...runa, Q. 
khon, Siam ... — 

kon, Shan ... — 

paka, Mon ... chacha, Aym. .. 
nguoi, Annam... kosa, Q. 

[su, man, Bu.] ..[kosa, Q., man] 

— rakka, Q. 

raeingma, Bu.]..marmi, Aym. .. 
mairima, Bu. ... — 

phdey, Cam. ... — 

kbal, Camb. ...ppekei, Aym. .. 
katau, Mon ... — 

ko, Karen ... — 

kamon, Annam. uma, Q. 
alu, Kumi 
sac, Cambo. 
, swet, Ann. 
asham, Kumi 



suncca, Aym. .. 
socco, Q. 



Heart 



Blood 



Hand 



sa, Akkad 
libis, Akkad 
guli, Georg. 
ghey, Circ. 
us, Akkad 



ta, Annam 
panek, Cam. . 
mitthah, An. . 

pik, Ahom 
khato, Mon 
nakhu, Karen, 
tai, Annam 
amaka, Kami . 
kha, Mon 
zhua, Mon 



zeit, Bu. 
lao, Annam 
chai, Siam 



akanu, Aym. .., 
riccay, Q. 
[mat a, forehead 

- Q 

naira, Aym. .. 
nagui, Q. 



rincri, Q. 
hinchu, Aym. ... 
lakka, Aym. .. 
simi, Q. 
kchaka, Aym... 
mati, Q. 



.. soncco, Q. 

.. chuimo, Aym. ... 



tlacatl. Huas. 
uinic, Mex. 
ninic, Maya 
[akun, Poc. ; boy] 
nxihi, Oth. 
oquich, Mex. 

nsu, Othomi 
soua, Mexico 

muki, Tara. 

[dame, Oth.] 
[tomol, Huas.] 



ayxacaTotonaca 
hool, Mex. 
moola, Tara. 
xta, si, Oth. 
tzotz, Mex. 

axaya, Mex. 

[Maya 
, tahnaluich, 
. ghual, Maya 

nich, Mex. 

pusiki, Tara. 

gu, Othomi 
nacaz, Mex. 
nechkala, Tara. 
kama, Huas. 
chi, Mex., Poc. 
tzi, Oth. 



qhane, Oth. 
tenilla, Tara. 
zimagat, Toto 



sishkhli, Georg. swe, Bur, 



htseihn, Mon....qhi, Oth. 



sujrab, Ak. 



su, Karen 



,. estli, Huast 

xihtz, Maya. 

,. maqui, Q. 



kheli, Georg. ...ka, Kumi, Ahom tachlli, Aym. 



cab, Mex. 
cubac, Maya 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



65 



Hand 
Foot 



Horn 



Skin 



Moon 



Star 



Day 



Fir 



Water 



Eiver 



Sky, Hea 
ven .. 



Western. 

■ i a « °yg» Ciro. ... 
, arik(i), Ak. 
pekhi, perhi, G. 
tlake, Circ. 
shi, Akkad 
rka, Georg. 
sliu, Akkad 
kani, George ... 
shooway, Circ.... 
zal(a), Akkad ... 
[usilEtrus] ... 
mze, Georg. ... 
pushur, par, Ak. 
teigha, Circ. ... 
dgeh, Circas. ... 

lid, Akkad 
[lala, Etr.] ... 
es, Akkad 
maathe, Circ. .. 
ooshaghe, Circ. 

dghe, Georg. .. 
[ur, Ak., light] 
tarn, Akkad .. 
ne, Akkad 
kum, Akkad .. 
[nefney, Cir , 
" light] 
a, Akkad 

aan, Ak[rain] .. 
aria, Akkad .. 
mdinare, Geo... 
ada, Akkad . . 
ra, Ak., flow .. 



Indo-Chinese. 

mo, An nam . 
kaw, Karen 
shon, Siam 
akho, Kami . 
sung, Annam . 
khyo, Bur. 
sare, axa, Bu.. 



Peruvian. 

kayu, Aym. 
chaqui, Q. 



Mexican, etc. 

maco, Totonaca 
... gua, Oth. 
. acan, Maya 

tala, Tara. 



huakra, Aym.,0j. 

ccara, Q. 
lepitchi, Aym.... 

inti, Aym., Q. 

lupi, Aym. 
punchau, Q. 



hindi, Oth. 
tonatuih, Mex. 



la, Bur., lah,Kar. quilla, Q. 
hpyalit, Siam... — 

paksi, Aym. . 

tsah, Karen . . . sillo, Aym. 

thngay, Cam. ... — 

. ngay, Ann. ...uru, Aym. 
tangway, Mon . — 

[ne,na, Bur.sun] nina, Q., Aym. 
kaino, Camb. ... — 



taika, Tarah. 
quih, Poc. 
aquicha, Huas. 
citlali, Mex. W^^rf 

maitsaka, Tara. 

tze, Othomi 
citlali, Mex. 
aquicha, Huas. 
quih, Poc. 
[tonatuih, Mex., 
[sun] 
naiki, Tara. 



ya, Bur. ... yaku, Q., Aym.. ahti, Cora 

o, Sak. ... — a, Mex.; ye, Tar. 

nan, Siam ... unu, Q. ...ha, Maya 

[re, Bur., water] hahuiri, Aym.... 

mrach, Burm.... — 

tak, Camb. ... — atoya,Mex.,Cor. 



siku, sigaru, Ak. 

an, Akkad 

tza, Georgian . . . 
Mountain kur, kar(a), Ak . 
Hill ... taghez, Circ. ... 

mtha, Georg. ... 



Stone 

Eock 
Tree 



.. taq(a), Ak. 
.. kwa, Georg. 
.. gu, iz, Ak. 
khe, Georg. 



Leaf .., potholi, Geor^ 



Field . . . sa, Akkad 
Garden... gan(a), Akkad. 

kana, Georg. .. 
House,etc uru, Akkad 

ziku, „ 

duk(u), Akkad. 

sakhli, Georg.. 
Name . . . mu, dara, Ak. . 



kor, Camb. 
kani, Kumi 
taka, Mon. 
khalon, Mon. ... 
tu, Mon. 
takun, Kami ... 
patouk, Shan.... 
tamo, Camb. . . . 
kamou, Mon. ... 
kai, Ann. 
kanoung, Mon. . 
akun, Kami ... 
slak, Camb. ... 
thela,lah, Karen 
la, Ann. 
sre, Camb. 



kkollo, Aym. 
pata, Q. 



kak, Aym., Q. 

khoka, Aym. 
quenua, Aym. 

llakka, Aym. 
lappi, Aym. 



kaan, Maya 
andvui, Mixteca 
taxah, Pocon. 

tepe, Mex. 



te, Mex. 
tete, Cora 



kan, Maya 



cancha, Q. 



zaca, Mex. 



reuan, Siam 

phoun, Camb. 
ban, Siam 
yamu, Mon. 



— ngu, Othom. 

uta, ata, Aym. . ata, Huas. 
puncu, Aym., Q. otoch, Maya 
suti, Aym., Q... sana, Mixte 
F 



6Q 



Hyde- Clarke. — Researches in Prehistoric and 



Name . 

Sheep . 

Goat . 

Bull . 

Cow . 

Dog 

Lion 

Wild 

sheep. 

Bird . 



Snake 
Fish 

Good 



Bitter 

Sour 

Black 

Eed 

Great 



Western, 
tsah, Circas. 



Indo-Chinese. 



Peruvian. 



Mexican, etc. 



maing, Karen ... — 

amin, Burm. ... — 

— chu, Siam ... — 

lu, Akkad ... — llama, Q. 

tzkwari, Georg.. — ccaura, Aym. ... 

heene, Circ., (la mb) — una, Aym. (lamb) 

gizdin, Akkad. . mea, Camb. ... paca, Aym, 
thkhavi, Georg.. khapa, Mon. ... — 

khar, la, Ak. ... karau, Mon. ... — 

hari, Georg. ... khaboi, Kami ... — 

dapara, Ak. ... paren,Mon.,buf- — 

puri, Georgian. . — [falo — 

liku, Akkad ... kala, Mon. ... anokara, Aym. . cocochi, Tara. 
dzaghli, Geor.... khwe, Burm. ... calatu, Q. 
khah, Circas. ... — — 

likmakh, Ak. ...kala, Mon. ... — ocelo, Mex. 

lomi, Georg. ... kya, Burm. ... puma, Ak., Q. ... 



dara, Akkad ... akkhoei, Camb.. taruca, Aym., Q. 

khu, Akkad ... — 

khathami, Geo..khaton, Mon. ... — 

kattey, Circ. . . . kava 

ti, sir, Ak. . . . tharun, Mon. 

kha, khan, Ak. . ka, Ann. 

bat(a), Akkad... para, Siam 

khiga, Akkad ... chia, Camb. 

kargi, Georg. ... kha, Mon. 



katari, Aym. 
kanu, Aym. 

asque, Aym. 



Give 



Eun 

Flow- 
Go 
Speak 



Eat 
Drink 



Die 
Kill 

Cut 



, hur(i), Akkad .. 
, mekave, Geor. 
, kug(i), Akkad.. 

mi, Akkad 

gusci, Akkad .. 

, enim, nun, Ak. 

makh, Akkad .. 

anta, Akkad .. 

atto, Circas. .. 
, she, Akkad 

ga? Akkad 

mu, Akkad 
, riati, Ak. 

rli, Georg. 

, kaka, Ak. 
laparako, Geor. 



ka^ Ak. 
ja, Georg. 

ka, Ak. 
nak, Ak. 
sua, Georg. 
khan, khut, Ak 
be, ba, bat, Ak. 
sikua, Georg. ... 
kud, khas, Ak.., 



gha, Karen, ... 
khah, Karen, B. 
khom, Siam .., 
khuaun, Camb.. 
mai, Burm. 
gau, Karen 
hpakit, Mon. ... 
thanot, Mon. ... 
miat, Burm. ... 
tau, Karen 



haru, Aym. 



chamaka, Aym. 
pako, Aym., Q. 

hatun, Q. 



chu, Aym. 
ku, Q. 



huayra, Q. 
[puri, Q.] 
[humi, Aym.,Q.] 

arusi, Aym. ... 
rima, Q. 



sho, Ann. 
ka, Mon. 
pekya, Burm. .. 
garitaa[aara], 

Mon. 
pre, Burm. 
aara, Mon. 
nikay, Camb. .. 
hankai, Mon. .. 
chho, Burm. .. 
hanmarai, Mon. 
chhan, Camb — mancana, Aym.. 
cha, Burm. ... — 

au, Ann. ... — 

kenn, Siam ... — 

thou, Mon. ... — 

sok, Burm. ... — 

mathi, Karen ... amaya, Aym. ... 
kha, Siam ... — 

— cuta, Aym. 



quauh, Mex. 



cay, Poc. 



qualli, Mex. 
gala, Tara. 
khuta. Tara. 



akahha, Maya 

cuz, Mex. 
kokoz, Mex. 
noh, Maya 
nim, Poc. 
na, ndi, Oth. 

caa, Maya 
kia, Tara. 
maka, Mex. 



hum a, Tara. 
ynqui, Poc. 



[Tava. 
qua, Cora, Mex., 
hanal, Maya 
hindi, Mixteca 
chia, Mex. 

muechit, Ceva 
miquiz, Mex. 
mukiki, Tara. 



Protohistoric comparative Philology, etc. 



67 





Western. 


Indo-Chinese. 


Peruvian. 


Mexican, etc 


Break . . 


. re, Georg. 


. rei, Cainb. 


. rutu, Q. 




Cry .. 


. tuq(a), Ak. 


. toui, Camb. .. 


huaca 




Weep . . 


— 


khok, Ann. 


— 




Place . . 


. ka, khash, Ak... 


— 


chura, Q. 




Put 


. ko, thsqo, Geoi 




cancha, Q. 




Eise 


. ri, Ak. 


. mnrang, Burm 


. hatari, Q. 




Eaise . . 


. aka, Ak. 


. heka, Karen . . 


hucaro, Q. 




Many . . 


. mes, Ak. 


. husamia, Burm 


— 


miec, Mex. 


All .. 


. ka, Ak. 


. ahmah, Karen . 


. [naka, Aym.] . 






koweli, G-eor. .. 


— 


[kuna, Q ] 


., 


No, not.. 


. nu, Ak. 


. pnoom, Camb... 


. hani, Aym. 


.. 


Negative 


. nu, Geor. 


. ma, Burm., etc. 


.ma, Aym., Q. . 


.. mao, Maya 




— 


na, Kumi 


— 


ma, Poc. 



The pronouns are of such varied 
only a few selections are offered. 



type and distribution that 



I, me 



Thou 



He 



We 

Plurals 



Western. 


Indo-Chinese 


Peruvian 


Mexican, etc. 


... mu, idbi, Ak. .. 


. awai, Mon. 


— 


ma, Oth. 


mi, Georg. 


— 


— 




— 


nyo, Angka ,. 


. na, Aym. 


... nuga, Oth. 


— 


nga, Burm. 


noca, Q. 


... ne, Mex. 


— 


kha, Siam., etc. 


— 




... zu, Ak. 


. tua, Siam. 


. -ta, Aym. 


... tata, Huas. 


shen, Geor. 


. tha, Karen 


— 


mi, Totonaca 


mun, men, Ak. 


— - 


— 


timo, Mex. 


weyroo, Circ. .. 


. bai, Mon. 


— 


pe, Cora 


— 


ba, Angka 


— 


pu, Tara. 


— 


nah, Karen 


. nqui, Q. 


... nugui, Oth. 


... ni, bi, Ak. 


. no, Ann. 


. hupa, Aym. 


... nunu, Oth. 


[ni,bi,plur. Geo.] w-a. 


. pay, Q. 


...bi, Oth. 


igi, misi, Geor. 


. ni, Khyeng 


. ni, Aym, 




— 


pho, Angka .. 


. n, Q. 




... me, Ak. 


— 


— 


ma, Oth. 


— 


— 


— 


tauie, Tara 


... -nene, Ak. 


. -aen, Siam 


. kuna, Q. 


... nana, Huas. 


-no, Ak. 


. -niht, Shan. .. 


. naka, Aym. 




-ni, Georg. 


— 


— 




-bi, Georg. 


. tau, Mon. 


. pay, Aym. 


. . . te, Cora 


-th, Georg. 


. dah, Karen 







...id, Ak. 


. moe, Camb. .. 


. mai, Aym. 


. . . ce, Mex. 


zee, Circas. 


. mway, Mon. .. 


. hue, sue, Q. 


... tam, Totomaca 


erthi, Geor. .. 


. mot., Ann. 







— 


tach, Burm. .. 







— 


ter, Karen 


, 




...bi, Ak. 


. bar, Camb. 


. pa, Aym. 


... poa, Cora 


kas, Ak. 


. pa, Mon. 


. yscay, Q. 


... ome, Mex. 


oh, Circas. 


. ki, Karen 


— 


yoho, Oth. 


ori, Georg. 


. kai, Angka 


— 


os, Tara. 


... essa, Ak. 


. sung, thou, Bur. kimsa, Aym., 


Q. osh, Huas. 


sami, Georg. . 


. sam, Siam 


— 


osh, Maya 


shee, Circas. . 


. htsan. Shan. .. 


— 




— 


pah, Camb. 


— 


ba, Tara. 


— 


pe, Mon. 


— 




... sana, Ak. 


. si, Siam 


. pusi, Aym. 




— 


htse, Shan. 







— 


tse, Angka 







— 


pon, Mon. 


_ 




— 


buan, Camb. ,. 


— 





68 




Discussion. 




Western. 


Indo-Chinese. Peruvian. Mexican, etc 


5... 
6... 


... sha, Ak. 

para, Ak. 

tpey, Circ. 
... as, Ak. 

shoo, Circas. 

ekusi, Georg. 


.. ha, Siam, Shan, ppiska, Ayin., Q. 

.. patson, Mon. ... — 

.. panggna, Kami. — 

.. sau, Ann. ... socta, Aym., Q.. 

.. sauk, Khyeng. . — 

Discussion. 



Consul T. J. Hutchinson being called on by the President, said he 
was afraid to enter into this discussion in commenting on the deep 
philological research displayed by Dr. Hyde Clarke, or on the exten- 
sive knowledge of warlike instruments, for which Colonel Lane is so 
well known. But he had his doubts about the possibility of learning 
the grammatical formations of languages from such tribes as those 
Dr. Clarke spoke of in Western Africa. Their dialects were all un- 
written, and it had been observed by Captain Adams, that the tower 
of Babel might have been built on the West coast of Africa, so nume- 
rous and varied were the idioms spoken there. For his own part he 
believed in what we have to learn of the anthropology of past people, 
much more from their works of art, than from what should be consi- 
dered as guesses at philology. He w x as happy to tell the meeting 
that the collection of copper implements, of cloth, of pottery-ware 
resembling that excavated from Priam's Ilium, by Dr. Henry Schlie- 
mann, of silver works of art, and other matters, brought by him from 
Peru, were now arranged at the Bethnal Green Museum, and in a 
short time the catalogue of them would be ready. 

Dr. Leitner gave an account of the origin, progress, system, and 
present attitude of the Indo-Germanic School of Philology, and con- 
sidered that Dr. Hyde Clarke's researches, which he illustrated by co- 
incidences derived from Arabic and his own Dardu discoveries, as 
well as those of all scholars and independent inquirers, deserved every 
encouragement for the sake of the cause of truth, and as a protest 
against the literary terrorism exercised by a set of Sanscritists, who 
now monopolised attention in certain leading societies and journals, 
erroneously supposed to be devoted to impartial investigations. The 
collection of material, historical, ethnological and other, was far more 
important than the preservation of this or that philological theory. 
We were on the mere threshold of the science of language ; the Id do- 
Germanic group was, with some stretching, scientifically classified, 
whilst the affinities of the Shemitic languages had never been 
doubted. The terms, however, of "Turanian" and even of "Hamitic" 
were a mere euphuism to express the absolute ignorance of our pre- 
sent philologers regarding the position to be assigned to that vast 
number of languages which yet remained insufficiently examined or 
unknown. 

Mr. Ii. G. Haliburton said : I have listened to this discussion with 
much pleasure, not only on account of the importance of the subject 
before us, but also on account of the liberal spirit which has been 



Discussion. 09 

evinced, for bigotry unfortunately is not confined to theologians, but 
is often as unreasoning and intolerant in science as it is in religion. 
Mr. Clarke's conclusion that there has been a connection between the 
religions and civilizations of the new and old worlds has been con- 
firmed by a very careful investigation of my own, extending over 
twenty years, into the identities existing between the calendars, festi- 
vals, and astronomical ideas of savage races in America, Polynesia, 
Africa, and Asia. These coincidences are very striking and very con- 
clusive, and I hope before long to submit the result of my labours to 
the notice of the public. There are proofs that there must have been 
repeated intercommunication between the races of the new and the 
old worlds prior to the days of Columbus. So evident is this conclu- 
sion that some writers have tried to establish that the origin of the 
religions and the civilisation of the old world must be sought in 
America. We have in the new world monuments of the stone age 
similar to those found in Denmark and elsewhere. We have coinci- 
dences in the calendars of the races inhabiting both continents which 
cannot be accidental. In architecture the resemblances are most 
striking. The grouping of Mexican pyramids I have found to be the 
same as that observable in Egypt, and a similar symbolism is to be 
traced in some of the groups of mounds in the new world, which is to 
be noticed in prehistoric structures of the old. We have Cyclopean 
masonry in Peru, and symbols which are conspicuous in the temples 
of the old world. There can be no doubt that we are on the eve of 
important discoveries, and Mr. Hyde Clarke by his valuable paper 
has pointed out very clearly how much we have to learn, and how 
much remains to reward the labours of the Anthropological Institute, 

Mr. J. Jeremiah, Jun., said, in reference to the remarks of Mr. 
Haliburton, in relation to his labours in American archseology, and 
his conclusions respecting the astronomical characteristics of the Mex- 
ican and Egyptian pyramids, that in a work in his collection, entitled 
" The Lost Solar System of the Ancients Discovered," by a Mr. John 
Wilson, published (in two volumes) as far back as 1856, the same 
conclusions are stated; but how far correct he was not this evening- 
prepared to say. The work abounds with apparently accurate mea- 
surements of all the then known great megalithic monuments in Eu- 
rope, Asia, Africa, and America, and elaborately detailed and worked 
out, to show that they were constructed in accordance with the Ori- 
ental astronomical system, and it may be remarked that the valuable 
paper we have listened to goes very far to support some of Wilson's 
arguments. It seems a pity that the labours of years at times turns 
out to be already forestalled in the main by some unknown work pub- 
lished years ago, as in the case of the honourable gentleman who 
preceded me. Mr. Hyde Clarke has proceeded upon strictly scientific 
grounds, and whether we premise the descent of the human family 
from one or more pairs, his researches will always afford the student 
much material for carrying on the impartial study of the history of 
man in the vast continent of America, and assist the comparative 



70 Discussion. 

study of the progress of the human mind in every part of the ancient 
world. 

Colonel Lane Fox, Senor de la Rosa, and the President also made 
some remarks. 



73 



Note in P. 69. 
Mr. R. G. Halliburton's Discovery of the Year of the Pleiades. 

Mr. Halliburton states, that in the Mexican pyramids, he has 
found the grouping to be the same as that observable in Egypt 
(the three groups), and in some of the groups of mounds of 
the new world. 

This does not state the whole truth of a most important dis- 
covery, which will lead to a knowledge of the obscure origin of 
the Egyptian system of learning, and that of the American 
monuments. It is something far older than the Egyptian 
system, hoar as that is in antiquity, and will place the earlier 
American moundbuilding migrations, at a very early period 
far beyond that of the Sumerians, chiefly referred to by me. 

In the pyramids mentioned, there is one large (Sun) pyra- 
mid, one smaller (Moon) pyramid, and 7 little pyramids, 
grouped, as I observed, 3 in a trinity with the Sun pyra- 
mid and 4 with the Moon pyramid. Mr. Halliburton has not 
yet been able to explain this to me, but the symbolism must 
have its value. 

The connection of the 7 has, however, been established 
by Mr. Halliburton that they are the seven Pleiades of the 
Bull. When these 7 in the middle of November are in a 
line with the 5 of the Bull, and these with the 3 in Orion and 
with the Dog Star, we have a series of 1, 3, 5, and 7, and 
the epoch of a prehistoric new year, marked by the festival 
of the dead. The Pleiades, constituting a cross or Tau, are also 
recognised as a paradise of the souls of men. 

On the day of the Pleiades, festivals are still held throughout 
the world. This great day was also one of human sacrifice. 

Traces of its observance are almost universal in the Old 
World and the New, and in the passage of communication 
in the Feejee Islands. 

A whole volume of symbolism is to be deduced not only 
from the myths, but from the numbers of 3, 5, and 7, and the 
unrolling of which will give us new and trustworthy results. 

These investigations will probably assist us in arriving at 
the animal origin of the constellations and signs of the 
zodiac. This may be based on the facts at pp. 24 and 25. 



74 



Note on P. 38. 

Early Metal Working. 

Very valuable materials on early metal working and its 
synchronism with comparative mythology, will be found in the 
papers of Miss A. Buckland, in the Journal of the Anthropo- 
logical Institute and the Westminster Review for January. 



o? 






By the same Author. 



MEMOIR ON THE COMPARATIVE 

GRAMMAR OF EGYPTIAN, 

COPTIC, AND UDE, 

By HYDE CLAEKE. 

London : 
TRiJBNEB & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL. 

1873. 
Price 3s. 6<7. 



RESEARCHES 

IN 

PREHISTORIC AND PROTOHISTORIC 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, 

MYTHOLOGY, AND ARCHEOLOGY, 

IN CONNECTION WITH THE 

ORIGIN OF CULTURE IN AMERICA 

AND THE 

ACCAD OR SUMERIAN FAMILIES, 



HYDE CLARKE, 



MEM. 01? THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE ; COR. MEM. AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY AND 

OE THE BYZANTINE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; FOR. MEM. OE THE 

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE. 



LONDON : 

Published by N. TRUBNER & CO., 
57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL, E.C. 

1875. 



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